TR 84-3
NATURAL RESOURCES
OF COlliER COUNTY
FLOR I DA
PART 3
COASTAL ESTUARINE RESOURCES
-----rf\ B ~ - :3
1984
Research supported in part by the
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation and the
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended, Administered by the
Office of Coastal Zone Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
~'L';I> ll.;!s;"'
7 i\ D
. )_J
TECHNICAL REPORTS
NATURAL RESOURCES OF COllIER COUNTY
84-l.
84-2.
84-3.
84-4.
NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PLAN
COASTAL BARRIER RESOURCES
COASTAL ESTUARINE RESOURCES
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT UNITS:
Data Inventory and Analysis
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT UNITS: Atlas
DRAFT ORDINANCES FOR PROTECTION OF
COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS
84-5.
84-6.
Technical Report No.84-3
ROBERT HI GORE
PR I NC I PAL P,UTHOR
MARK A. BENEDICT, PH.D.
Director
ROBERT H. GORE, PH.D.
Coastal Zone Management
Specialist
JUDSON W. HARVEY
Coastal Zone Management
Associate
MAURA E _ CURRAN
Coastal Zone Management
Technician
o
NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT
COLLIER COUNTY GOVERNMENT COMPLEX
3301 TAMIAMI TRAIL EAST
NAPLES. FLORIDA 33942-4977
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
........ ... ... II II............................ II.........
.iii
SECTION 1
S ynop s is. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
SECTION 2
Introduction
................................................... .5
SECTION 3
Physiography-Geomorphology
A. Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
B. Limits and Areal Extent of the Collier County
Estuarine System ............................................11
SECTION 4
Geology
A. General Topography and Soils
B. Coastal Stratigraphy..........
C. Collier County Aquifers
D. Salt Water Intrusion
. . . . . . . . 18
. . . . . 19
....22
. . .24
SECTION 5
Climatology-Hydrology
A . C 1 ima t e .............................
B. Hydrologic Cycles and Water Budgets
C. Tidal Influences ..................... ......
D. Drainage Basins and Canals in Collier Couny
. . . .27
......27
.. 30
.. 31
SECTION 6
Human Use and Impact
A. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Demographic Aspects in Collier County
C. Pesticides in the Environment
D. Dredge and Fill Operations
E. Other Effects on the Estuarine System
. . . . .37
. . . . . .38
......39
....42
. . . .43
SECTION 7
Estuarine Ecology
A. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Plant Communities in the Coastal Zone
C. Wetland Types and Definitions
D. Coastal Zone Ecosystems .......
......45
.46
.47
.51
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
SECTION 8
Conc 1 us i on ......................................................... 58
SECTION 9
Recommendations .................................................... 59
Bi bliography ....................................................... 60
ii
PREFACE
Overview
Collier County' s coastal zone. defined for administrative purposes as
that area of the County on the Gulf side of U.S. 41 (the Tamiami Trail).
encompasses 328 square miles of coastal barrier. bay, wetland, and
maritime upland habitats. The coastal zone stretches S7 miles from the
northwest to southeast and varies in width from 2 miles at the north
county line. to 12 miles in the vicinity of Marco Island and 8 miles near
the southern county border. Collier County's coastal zone. which makes
up 16 percent of the County's total land area. is inhabited by 38.800
people (1980 census). 4S percent of the County's population. An addi-
tional 29.300 people live within S miles east of U.S. 41. In total, 79
percent of the county's population is found within 10 miles of the Gulf
of Mexico.
The Countyls coastal zone is characterized by both developed and undevel-
oped areas. Of the 328 square miles in the coastal zone 67 square miles
(21 percent) are developed. Of the remaining 261 square miles 123 square
miles (37 percent) are undeveloped and preserved as Federal (Everglades
National Park. Rookery Bay National Estuarine Sanctuary). State (Faka-
hatchee Strand, Collier-Seminole, and Delnor-Wiggins State Parks and
Barefoot Beach State Preserve). and County (Tigertail and Clam Pass Beach
Parks) resource management and protection areas. The remaining 138
square miles (42 percent) are undeveloped and in private ownership.
Unlike most of the rapidly developing counties in South Florida, Collier
County is unique in that the great majority of its coastal zone is still
in its natural state. Hundreds of thousands of acres of coastal barriers.
wetlands. bays, and marine grassbeds are still relatively undisturbed,
much as they have been for thousands of years. It is these areas that
have made Collier County so aesthetically attractive. If properly
managed they will continue to function in this respect.
Of equal importance, however. are the natural resources of these
undeveloped regions of the coastline areas which are ecologically vital
to both the County and southwest Florida. The coastal barriers, if they
remain unaltered, serve as a first line of defense against the sea.
Storm surge damage. coastal flooding, and erosion of the mainland can be
alleviated or slowed by a functioning, natural system of coastal
barriers. The wetlands. shallow bays, and marine grassbeds are other
important parts of the coastal ecosystem. The mangrove forests (those in
Collier County being some of the largest. undisturbed systems in the
United States and one of the best developed in the world) and associated
marshes provide the organic materials and detritus that form the basis of
the coastal food chain and support the abundant shellfish and finfish
resources of southwest Florida. The unaltered coastal ecosystem not only
functions as a haven for birds, fish, and other wildlife. but may also
provide necessary refuge for those species that have been driven from
adjacent, heavily altered or extirpated coastal systems. The undisturbed
natural systems of Collier County form the keystone for the south Florida
ecosystem. The coastal zone links the estuarine systems of Lee and
Monroe County while the vast, unspoiled eastern area of the County
connects the coastal and interior wetland systems with those of Dade and
Broward Counties.
iii
Almost half of the unaltered coastal zone in Collier County is under the
ownership and/or management of Federal, State, or Local agencies for the
sole purpose of protecting the natural systems. Although this is
gratifying, it is important to remember that the other half of the
undisturbed coastal area is in private ownership. In addition, both the
private and the managed coastal areas are bounded by uplands that are
either developed or proj ected for future urban or agricultural dev-
elopment. Activities undertaken in the private areas of the coastal zone
or on adjacent upland property, if not properly planned, could result in
the degradation of our remaining undisturbed coastal areas in only a few
decades and the loss of their resources. In a recent position paper R.
A. Livingston wrote that "if history is our guide, one basic problem lies
in public acceptance of almost any level of environmental deterioration
as long as it occurs gradually enough". To safeguard the coastal zone
resources of Collier County from gradual deterioration and to ensure
their continuing function as a vital part of the southwest Florida
ecosystem, positive and direct steps must be taken. Predominant among
these must be the implementation of a program to ensure that all future
land use activities proposed for the coastal zone are designed to be
totally compatible with, or at least not inimical to, the natural
resources and the associated recreation values of the County's un-
disturbed coastal areas.
Collier County Coastal Zone Management Program
The coastal zone is one of Collier County's maj or assets. Abundant.
natural resources, ample recreation opportunities, and popularity as a
homesite for many seasonal and full time residents are factors of the
coastal zone well recognized by the Board of County Commissioners, the
County staff, and many local conservation and business groups. For these
reasons the community as a whole has supported past and present coastal
zone management activities in Collier County.
With the support of the Board of County Commissioners and grants from
the Office of Coastal Management, Florida Department of Environmental
Regulation, and the Erosion Control Program, Florida Department of
Natural Resources, the Collier County Natural Resources Management
Department is developing a County Coastal Zone Management Program. A
major goal of this program is the protection of the natural resources of
Collier County's coastal barriers, bays, and wetlands and the management
of coastal development in order to ensure that future land-use activities
will not degrade these resources. The Program is a continuous, multi-
year project involving, research, implementation, and environmental
protection activities. Progress to date includes data incorporated into
the following Technical Reports:
Technical Reports 83-1, 83-2, 83-3
Beach Management Planning and
Implementation Strategies at
the Local Level
The Beach in Collier County: A
Model in Southwest Florida
Drafts plans for beach and
coastal barrier management
in Collier County; describes
maj or components and imple-
mentation of Collier County
Coastal Zone Management Pro-
gram; identifies Collier
iv
A Resource Management Program for
the Coastal Barriers of Collier
County, Florida
Technical Report 84-1
Natural Resources Management Plan
Technical Reports 84-2, 84-3
Coastal Barrier Resources
Coastal Estuarine Resources
Technical Report 84-4, 84-5
Coastal Zone Management Units:
Data Inventory and Analysis
Coastal Zone Management Units:
Atlas
Technical Report 84-6
Draft Ordinances for Protection
of Coastal Ecosystems
v
County as a model for beach
management in Florida; pro-
vides background data on
beach resources, dynamics,
and past management activi-
ties;
Sets natural resource goals
and policies for county and
describes how they will
be implemented; highlights
coastal barriers, bays, and
wetlands as areas of special
management concern; delin-
eates the currently undevel-
oped portions of the coastal
zone as a distinct land-use
type requiring careful re-
view prior to any land de-
velopmental or alterational
activities;
Evaluates and analyzes the
current resources and en-
vironmental features of the
county's coastal barriers
and coastal estuarine areas;
presents data on shoreline
migration, beach and inlet
dynamics, and estuarine eco-
systems; describes man's
presence in the coastal zone
and his current and poten-
tial impacts;
Delineates the coastal zone
of Collier County into dis-
crete management units and
beach segments; compiles
site-specific data on re-
sources and management for
each unit;
Reviews the existing codes
and environmental ordinances
for Collier County in com-
parison to those from other
Floridan counties; drafts
model ordinances covering
resource review, vegetation
standards, coastal construc-
tion activities, and perfor-
mance bonds.
Upcoming Program activities include: (1) The design and implementat ion
of a development review procedure that closely ties the permitting of a
land-use activity, proposed in or adjacent to the currently undeveloped
regions of the coastal zone, to a specific ecological community, its
resource values, and its limiting biological and physical factors. The
procedure will be designed to ensure that only those activities
compatible with habitat values and functions, or designed to minimize
adverse impacts on those values. will be allowed (proj ect funded by
D.E.R. Office of Coastal Management); and (2) The continuation of dune
restoration and protection activities at all County beach parks and
access points. The latter project involves the removal of exotic plant
species, the reconstruction and revegetation of dunes damaged by storm
activity or visitor use, the construction of back dune feeder walkways
and dune crossovers, and the placement of signs and low profile fences to
maintain the restored dunes (project funded by the D.N.R. Erosion Control
Program) . The results of these and other proj ects conducted under the
County Coastal Zone Management Program will be the subject of future
Technical Reports prepared by the Natural Resources Management Dep-
artment.
Acknowledgements
The Natural Resources Management Department thanks the staff of the
D.E.R. Coastal Management Office and the D.N.R. Erosion Control Program
for the assistance they have given in the development of the Collier
County Coastal Zone Management Program. The Department also acknowledges
the staff of other County agencies and Departments that have provided
technical support to this Program. Special appreciation and gratitude is
expressed to Diane Brubaker, Linda Greenfield, and Margaret Tinney of the
Community Development Division, whose assistance materially aided in the
preparation of these Technical Reports.
vi
SECTION 1
SYNOPSIS
1. The Collier County estuarine system, one of the most extensive
in the state of Florida, extends from the Lee-Collier County line
south and eastward along the coastal margin through the Ten Thousand
Islands. The westward boundary occurs at Everglades National Park
at Everglades City-Chokoloskee Island and the Monroe County Line.
In linear extent this comprises approximately 76 miles of coastline,
but in areal extent consists of about 225 square miles of estuary or
estuary-associated wetlands. Except for some small, narrow sections
along the upper western coast the majority of these wetlands remain
relatively undisturbed.
2. The Collier County estuarine system is influenced by 4 major
hydrological regimens: A) rainfall; B) marine tidal ingress at 12
tidal passes; C) freshwater input from a series of 17 small rivers
or creeks that drain the interior of the county; and D) freshwater
subterranean flow through the shallow subsurface aquifer and
groundwater table that seeps or percolates into the system.
3. There are two major types of estuarine physiography: 1) a series of
interconnected coastal lagoons formed by, and lying behind, nearby
offshore barrier islands; and 2) a more widespread, semi-deltaic to
open bay system that grades into Florida Bay. The former phy-
siographic system extends from the Barefoot Beach-Bonita Springs
area southward to Cape Romano. The latter system, extending from
east of Marco Island to the Monroe County line, encompasses the Ten
Thousand Islands tributary-deltaic system and numerous ephemeral
freshwater drainages from the Belle Meade/Picayune-Camp Keasis/
Okaloacoochee-Fakahatchee drainage systems.
4. The salinity regimes within these two systems remains largely
uninvestigated. Scattered data indicate, however, that typically
marine salinities are found in or immediately behind the passes,
with a generally decreasing gradient progressing away from either
side of the pass into the lagoonal system. Freshwater influence is
varied and seasonal with higher salinities occurring during the dry
(winter) season, and lower salinities during the rainy (summer)
season. Present day salinities do not reflect the historical
salinity regime owing to alteration of both pass and bay systems,
inland canal dredging, and large scale diversion of surface
freshwaters into the estuary.
5. The construction of US 41 has produced a semi-permanent dike to
freshwater inflow from the interior, with limited passage available
through a series of under-road culverts, weirs, and other water
control structures. A comparison of early aerial photographs with
present day photo-imagery suggests that the general estuarine system
may have been drastically altered toward its upland margin near the
US 41 embankment. Saltmarsh vegetation m2Y have replaced one-time
mangrove systems in this area, although in some places near SR 92,
and into the lower margin of the Fakahatchee Strand, red mangroves
maintain a foothold from earlier saline-water instrusions.
1
6. US 41 marks the arbitrary inland boundary for the estuarine wetlands
considered in this report. This highway, plus a series of other
major east-west, or north-south trending roadways, has produced a
compartmental effect on surface waters which may induce higher
than normal water levels during periods of heavy rainfall or
tropical storm activity. Further alteration in the form of ar.
extensive matrix of dredged canals in the Golden Gate area allows
both storage and channelization of surface waters, and creates
large quasi-impound~ents which periodically flood.
7. Major vegetational types in the Collier County estuarine system are
mangrove forest, blackrush saltmarsh, grading into an upland pine
barrens-palmetto scrub, or pine-cypress mixed forest, interspersed
with hydric hardwood hammocks or coastal palm-oak-hardwood ha~ocks.
Within the tidally ir.fluenced regions, seagrass beds composed
predominantly of Halodule-Syringodium or Thalassia occur to a
limited extent.
8. The entire coastal system in one of generally low topographic
relief, large areas of poorly drained, relatively thin topsoils,
coupled with locally rich areas of organic soils, peat and muck.
Area ecology is water-based and water dependent with a direct
relationship to wet-ciry season hydroperiodicity, coupled with
standing water, shallow surface sheetflow, and shallow surface
seepage. The entire system is best characterized as oligohaline-
euryhaline, backed by fresh or euryhalinic fluviatile-influenced
marsh-mangrove assemblages.
9. The lagoonal estuary is intimately associated with barrier island
dynamics. Storm tide overwash, barrier island accretion and
downstream drifting, as well as opening and closing of ephemeral
passes, established the historical estuarine regime. This has been
modified by the construction of jetties, the permanent opening of
tidal passes, and the sealing of large portions of the system from
adjacent lagoonal areas.
10. Estuarine systems north of Clam and Wiggins Pass may be expected to
decline, as a result of interruption of the tidal flow through
systems above them. Estuarines area south of these passes may be
expected to remain relatively unchanged if they can be maintained in
a reasonably natural condition. The Gordon River-Naples Bay estuary
has been permanently altered on its western bank; it is uncertain
whether the eastern shore mangrove system will continue to thrive.
The Ten Thousand Island system remains undisturbed and, barring
future alteration, will form the bulwark for the entire Collier
County estuary along the southeastern and southern margin of the
county's maritime zone. This region is largely protected at present
and only naturally occurring damage (e.g. hurricanes, extensive
freshwater flooding) would have much effect.
11. The resilience of Collier County wetlands to withstand perturbations
depends in a large part on their areal extent and the condition of t'
adjacent terrain. Small, semi-isolated or isolated systems such as
Upper Clam Bay are already undergoing decline, hastened by nearby
2
large-scale real estate development. With the general circulation
of the system severely impaired the chance for eutrophication is
increased. Nutrient overenrichment is also a problem affecting the
more open, but severely topographically altered Naples Bay estuary.
Tidal flushing seems to have alleviated, in part, a potentially
rapidly euthrophicating system, but continued pollution (often to
dangerously high levels) makes this system aesthetically less
desirable. The effect of nutrient overenrichment in the overland
runoff of fertilizer-bearing waters from upland farms may also pose
a problem in the future for the Ten Thousand Island system; however,
at present the estuary in this area seems able to absorb increased
nutrient loads.
12. Pesticides form an important source of pollution. Data indicate,
however, that levels are presently low, at least in more remote
parts of the system. Continued wide-scale aerial application of
Malathion and Baytex for mosquito control may impose moderate to
severe stress on estuarine invertebrate and vertebrate species.
This is especially true for arthropods such as mangrove-associated
insects, or seagrass and mangrove associated crustaceans.
Ramifications of pesticide application on the estuarine food web
remain univestigated.
13. Periodic storage and release of large amounts of fresh water from
interior wetlands via canals into the estuary forms another major
perturbation. In addition to the large scale loss of potentially
potable water draining into the Gulf of Mexico, large freshwater
injections can change the system from mesohaline to oligohaline or
nearly freshwater in the upper portions. This situation has already
been recorded in the Naples Bay-Gordon River system. While not
necessarily detrimental to a mature and healthy mangrove forest,
continued inundation, especially at high water levels, can adversely
affect black mangrove growth and viability, shift colonization
selection of propagules toward white mangrove and buttonwood
species, and severely stres~ numerous invertebrate food organisms on
which the estuarine fish and bird populations feed. Because many of
these invertebrates are burrowers, fresh or oligohalinic water may
stand for long periods of time in their excavations, thereby
eliminating the occupants. Moreover, much of the detrital-ba-
cterial-fungal system that functions in nutrient production and
release may be hampered by continuing large amounts of fresh water,
shifting the system and the dependent food web.
14. With approximately 60% of the available county land (both upland and
wetland) presently in one preservation category or another, the
outlook for maintenance of the general estuarine systems appears
good. But projected populational increases to 142-153,000 people
in 1990 and 188-218,000 in 2000 indicates that a massive increase in
pertubatory mechanisms will occur. Included would be services,
utilities, septic tanks and other wastewater systems, water usage,
living space, and recreational use on, within, and adjacent to the
estuarine systems. The most pristine system, that of the Ten
Thousand Islands, will undoubtedly come under heavy usage, whereas
nearer, more accessible systems such as Clam Bay or Wiggins Pass
3
will be subjected to extremely heavy populational stress. Future
developmentnl plans h3ve already parcelled out portions of the
Marco Island estuarine system, and it seems safe to say that the
Everglades City-Chokoloskee area will soon be "discovered", as
developers sE'3rch for the increasingly fewer available areas that
are still undisturbed. Major populational increases, owing to
demographic restrictior.~ on much of the county, can only occur in
these regions. Protection of the Collier County estuarine system
can only be ensured through careful management, maintenance, and
regulation of growth, and the passage of a series of strong
ordinances to enforce correct usage of ~ands still available, as
well as to forestall detriment31 development. Severe tax problems
will be created as properties on tax rolls are changed in status
and become restricted, marginally or completely non-developable.
It will take a county government of great foresight, and even
greater courage, to ensure that the estuarine wetlands, one of
Collier County's greatest assets, remain productive and viable in
future years. The problem is complicated by the lack of control of
activity in adjacent counties. Because Collier County is at the
lowest end of the entire southwestern hydrologic system, any
degratory development to the north will undoubtedly have an
important impact or. the wetlands as a whole.
4
SECTIOl\ 2
INTRODUCTION
Estuarine areas have received increased attention in recent years as
their value to the adjacent mainland areas, or associated barrier island
systems has become realized. Although long recognized as important
regions insofar as their vegetative habitat and their ability to support
a rich and diversified wildlife, the intrinsic worth of such regions was
often dismissed with little study and still less justification. One
reason for this dismissal was that estuarine systems are extremely
complex ecosystems, often encompassing several major biotopes (e.g.
seagrass, mangrove, saltmarsh) and associated ecotones (e.g. seagrass-
alga, mangrove-scrub shrub. terrestrial halophyte-meadow). Morever, the
estuarine regions often grade imperceptibly into more upland, or more
freshwater-related ecosystems, so that it is a often difficult to state
where the estuary or its influence actually begins or ends. Another
factor is that estuaries support less desirable biota in addition to
man's subjectively-characterized "valuable speciesl1. Some of the
undesirables because of their habit or habitat are inimical to man,
either because they persistently annoy him, or because they act as
vectors for human diseases. [The word 'malaria' comes from an Italian
root which alluded to the supposedly bad air or vapors (mal + aria) that
emanated from Piedmont marshes and bogs]. From still another viewpoint,
estuarine areas were characterized as swamps, bogs, sloughs, etc., thus
connoting regions less than desirable for human habitation. Because of
the very active biological activity that occurs in these regions the
process of recruitment, growth, predation, competition, death and
decomposition is continuous. One consequence is the production of
malodorus compounds, including hydrogen sulfide, (HzS rotten eggs),
methane (CH4, foul odor), and ammonia-based compounas (NH3, putrefac-
tion.)
The relatively recent acknowledgement that estuaries function as nursery
areas for numerous marine invertebrates which, in turn, act as food for
the many types of fishes and birds that man classifies as either
recreationally, commercially, or aesthetically important, has
subjectively changed man's concepts in regard to estuarine values.
Dollar figures are both complex and misleading, and have been calculated
according to several bases. Estuarine land values, for example, have
been estimated from $370-29,OOO/acre. Because of the individual
complexity that is inherent in each estuarine system or subsystem, no
true or realistic value can be calculated without considering the
values of associated upland and immediate offshore areas. Although
much of the value can, with proper manipulation, be shown to be intrinsic
the extrinsic net worth (in the final analysis) comes down to what man
will pay. For example, taking the highest figure above, one acre of
estuarine land having a value of $29,000 may be little related to the
commercially developable real estate figure for that same land.
5
Estuarine-fronting lands in the Chokoloskee-Everglades City area are
worth substantially less than similar lands on Marco Island. Yet both
are intrinsically equal in their value to the maritime system as a
whole, and both decrease concomitantly in value should the upland areas
be so altered that the ecological value of the estuary is also
diminished. As pointed out by Davis & Hirsch (1975) the developmental
cost in any real estate will directly affect its value. They provide
figures and estimated cost increase or value reductions for several
types of developmental situations and discuss in depth the
value-fluctuations inherent in each; the interested reader should
consult this paper for details.
While acknowledging therefore that estuaries have importance to man, very
little acknowledgement has been given as to how much estuarine wetland is
"enough". Again, it has only been quite recently that quanitification of
"how much is enough" has been attempted. In the most idealized cases,
the answer to "how much is enough" would be whatever was there in the
first place. But this answer runs headlong into the realtor's ethic
which is espouses development of land solely for man's use. Taking the
state of Florida as a case in point, one need only consider the areas of
the southeastern "Gold Coast" from Palm Beach to Miami, once a vast and
thriving estuarine system, to see what "enough" meant then, as opposed to
now. An unfortunate corollary to the realtor's development ethic is
that people come to Florida for the very amenities that are, and must
be, destroyed if the burgeoning population is to be supported. Because
estuarine lands often have aesthetic as well as ecologic value, they are
the first to be developed. Thus the natural aesthetics that made them
so attractive usually become subservient to the English manor ethic that
demands large greenswards, with carefully planted, introduced species of
vegetation that erroneously reflect y:hat Florida is "supposed to be".
It is further paradoxical that the land-development ethic previously
tended to corsider estuarine lands (i.e. mangroves, salt marshes) as
worthless, but the very same area now denuded of such biotopes to have
great monetary value.
It has been noted earlier that the estuarine lands of Collier County if
left in their natural state would be uninhabitable, or only marginally
so. Arable or developable land can only be created through massive
alteration of upland, marginal, and subtidal areas, and the associated
hydropattern. In addition, continuous suppression of parts of the
ecosystem (e.g. mosquito control, water management) are required to
maintain habitability. This alteration irrevocably changes the ecology
and is also detrimental to adjacent areas as well, inasmuch as the
estuary is only a part of a larger system in the southern peninsula. The
Collier County coastal system is at the lowest end of the southwestern
Florida hydrological continuum. The changes, therefore, that occur in
Lee and Hendry Counties immediately to the north become a Sword of
Damocles for Collier County.
The problems can thus be listed as follows: A) What are the estuarine
wetland areas in Collier County; B) How may they best be managed or
manipulated to maintain their biological value while at the same time
serving the needs of one of the most rapidly growing counties in the
state; and C) Can those areas in decline be saved, and those in relative
good health be maintained?
6
This report is based on data obtained from field surveys and a general
overview of the extent, conditions, and development of the coastal
estuaries in the County. It addresses those factors primarily associated
with the estuaries, lagoonal bays, and brackish tributary systems,
emphasizing general biological, chemical, physical, vegetational and
ecological C1spects. It also provides examples of the various subsystems
found in these areas, denotes the major vegetational features thereof,
lists the approximate areal extent of wetland or water area to mainland
or dry upland regions, and provides a prognosis of the future of such
areas in Collier County based on presently observable trends.
Five major topics are considered in this report: 1) protection or
preservation of wetlands, including mangrove forest systems, as well as
some related upland vegetational ecosystems; 2) water quality management
within the estuary, especially in regard to pollutional aspects and their
control; 3) dredge and filling effects on the estuarine system in
general; 4) evaluation and control of freshwater input into the coastal
estuarine system; and 5) protection, where required of valuable submerged
habitats to ensure ma~ntenance of sport, commercial or aesthetic aspects
of fisheries and associated biota.
A synopsis is provided of the major factors that impinge on the estuarine
systems in Collier County. This is followed by definitions of the
various systems. Within each, the major vegetational assemblages are
briefly considered, including any detrimental effects that man or nature
might impose. Finally, the 8 major drainage areas, as delineated for
this study, are each briefly synopsized in regard to physical, physio-
grapic, biological and demographical impacts. Included herein are
recommendations for minimizing or otherwise controlling adverse impacts
on such systems.
The report integrates with the goals and plans of the State of Florida in
regard to the coastal zone areas of the peninsula. The study is also an
integrative effort with the Resource Management Programs and the Natural
Resources Elements of the Collier County Comprehensive Plan. The
specific goals of this plan include 1) the conservation, maintenance and
restoration of the natural biological and physical resources of Collier
County, and attainment of an environmental program to effectively manage
and protect the natural resources; 2) collection, evaluation and
dissemination of information on these resources and their uses; 3)
conservation, maintenance or restoration of native habitats, including
those listed as rare, endangered, unique, or otherwise incompatible with
human use; and 4) the protection or preservation of physical, biological,
hydrological, and atmospheric systems within the county.
7
SECTIOl\ 3
PHYSIOGRAPHY - GEOMORPHOLOGY
A. Background
By definition, an estuarine system is an assemblage of permanently
submerged tidal habitats and adjacent littoral (intertidal) areas
with associated wetlands. These systems are usually semi-enclosed
by land but have open, partially obstructed, or only sporadic access
to the open sea. In estuaries sea water is at least occasionally
diluted by freshwater runoff or seepage from the land (modified from
Cowardin et ale 1979).
--
The Collier County estuarine system consists of two distinct but
interconnected physiographic systems: a lagoonal system associated
with the County's coastal barrier system, and a semi-deltaic to open
bay system in the Ten Thousand Islands region (Fig. 1). The barrier
bar-enclosed, lagoonal estuary has both permanent and ephemeral
inlet connections to the Gulf of Mexico on the western side, and
freshwater sheet flow, runoff, canal and river or creek input on the
mainland eastern side. This system was apparently at one time more
or less longitudinally continuous from the barrier island lagoons in
Lee County southward to Cape Romano. From the Cape Romano terminus
of the coastal barrier system, the coastal estuary is both bordered
and interspersed with mangrove-oyster shell islands of varying size
and increasing complexity progressing toward the southeast. Thus,
although the two systems are distinct each is contiguous with the
other. The northerly portion of the system has been severely
altered, while that in the south and eastern portions remains, with
the exception of Marco lsland area, more or less pristine.
The system as a whole is shallow, with depths ranging from less than
a meter to about 2 meters. Where dredging has been conducted for
the intracoastal waterway and in the areas of the tidal passes,
depths may reach 6 meters or so. The lagoonal and Ten Thousand
Islands systems are predominantly 1 meter or less near shore,
increasing to about 2 meters offshore.
The major marine influence is from the Gulf of Mexico and the
associated Florida Bay area. Salinities in these water bodies may
fluctuate depending on rainfall, current systems, and tidal
conditions, but usually are in the order of 26-340/00, Freshwater
input modifies marine-influenced salinities and values may range
from about 0.50/00 within river or tributary mouths, to about
350/00 in lagoonal or open bay areas. The salinity regime is
complicated by several factors, including delayed flushing times,
the presence of a tidally-reflecting weir upstream in the Gordon
River and Henderson Creek, nurrerous finger canals with some, little
or no vertical stratification, and, of course, climatic factors
involving seasonal rainfall or drought. (see van der Kreeke, in
Simpson ~ al. 1979). Salinities tend to be higher and undergo
greater fluctuation but in a more consistent manner in the eastern
portion of the estuarine system in Fakahatchee Bay (Yokel 1975c).
Hypersaline conditions, with values approaching 400/00 may
occasionally occur in the northern isolated coastally-associated
basins.
8
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Comparison or bar-built barrier-lagoonal systems
(Drainage Districts I-IV) with deltaic mangrove
lsland systems (Drainage Districts VI-VII). The
Marco Island-Cape Romano System (Dra1nage District
V) 1S transitlonal to both.
Figure 1.
9
Freshwater input comes from 3 major sources (Cocohatchee River,
Gordon River-Golden Gate Canal system, and FakaVnion Canal system),
plus at least 8 lesser-sizec rivers and 5 creeks (the distinction
between a river and a creek is often locally subjective). In
addition, freshwater sheet flow enters through large strand areas
such as Picayune anc Fakahatchee Strands, as well as in a general
overland flow that originates in the Big Cypress region. For more
detailed discussion see Weinstein ~~. (1977), Yokel (1975c) and
the summarized reports by Gee & Jensen, Inc., and Missmer &
Associates, listed in the bibliography.
Taken as a whole, the estuary is apparently not temperature-
stratified except for occasional periods of temperature-inversion
during the summer months. The relatively shallow contours, and the
fact that overall circulation in the system appears to be wind-
driven, probably accounts for the lack of recurrent temperature
strata. Water temperatures range from about 100C to 310C with
higher values (as might be expected) in late summer months, and the
lowest values in January-February (see Hicks, in Simpson et al.,
1979; Yokel 1975c). ----
Water transport within the estuarine system has not yet been
examined. Because the upper basins in the vicinity of Wiggins Pass
have been permanently interdicted from their once-contiguous
conterparts in Lee County, the major flow southward must originate
through Wiggins Pass, and to a lesser extent, Clam Pass. However
the Clam Bay-Clam Pass syste~ itself is no longer connected to the
Wiggins Pass system, and Inner Clam Bay receives little influence
from Clam Pass. Water transport is probably quite restricted in
this system. This is supported by Heald ~ ale (1978) who noted
that some of the mangrove forests in Inner Clam Bay were in a state
of decline. The Doctors Bay system is also nearly completely
isolated from the Clam Bay system immediately to the north, and it
terminates in a series of dredged canals with no further coastal
connection below Doctors Pass. The Gordon River-Naples Bay system
is the second largest enclosed estuary in areal extent on the
barrier coast, and this system is contiguous with the Dollar
Bay-Rookery Bay system immediately to the south. The former system
has been heavily altered, whereas the latter remains relatively
unaffected because of the establishment of the Rookery Bay National
Esturarine Sanctuary in the im~ediate environs. The Dollar-
Rookery-Johnson Bay estuary is the largest enclosed estuary within
the barrier island coast, and is the least disturbed. Transport via
Gordon and Big Marco Passes may be substantial. Immediately to
the south and east lies Marco Island and the Big Marco River. The
latter is not truly a river with headwaters and a discharge mouth,
but rather a coastal lagoon lying behind Marco Island. From this
point intracoastal water transport ceases to have Duch meaning.
The iIT~ediately adjacent areas to the south and east form the
gateway to the Ten Thousand Islands estuarine system, one of the
largest coastal wetland/bay systems in the world. This system, in
turn, grades imperceptibly into the Fakahatchee Bay system and the
Everglades Park system that continues dOWTJ around the southwestern
tip of the Florida peninsula. Except for the Marco Island area, and
some development at Chokoloskee Island, the region is little
disturbed.
10
B. Limits and Areal Extent of the Coll~~r County Estuarine Sv~tem
For the purpose of this study the coastal region of Collier County
wa~ divided into 8 major drainage districts. Although the limits
and borders of each district are, to some extent, arbitrary, they
were chosen to correspond as closely a~ possible with the major
hydrographic and physiographic features on the mainland and barrier
islands. The upland limit was, in all cases CS 41 (Tamiami Trail).
This boundary was selected because it acts as an artificial barrier
to nearly all sheet and tributary flow of inland surface waters.
Bridges and culverts allow some passage, but in many cases the flow
is directed laterally away from historical or geological flow
channels. The Cocohatchee and Gordon Rivers, Haldernann and
Henderson Creeks, and the FakaUnion and Turner River Canals have
more or less straight through access to the Gulf of Mexico. Larger
upland watercourses such as the Fakahatchee Strand have sheet and
surface tributary flow directed through a series of highway
culverts. A generalized flow diagram for the County is presented in
Figure 2.
Lateral boundaries fer each district were chosen using at least two
major thoroughfares that encompassed the mainland hydropgraphic
feature of a regior. These boundaries were continued across the
coastal barrier island. For coastal management units ~o. II, III,
and IV the nearest tidal pass formed either the upper or lower
boundary. It was again felt that the thoroughfares lying normal to
the general coastline probably acted as dikes or provided at least
some impediment to water flow within the delimited area. These
boundaries are listec for each district under the appropriate
section of the management unit report and are illustrated in Figure
3.
The Collier County estuarine system, as noted earlier, is primarily
a coastal lagoon system in the north and central areas, becoming a
more open mangrove-oyster car system from the Ten Thousand Islands
region eastward. Thus, no discussion of seaside (i.e. Gulf-exposed)
features will be made. The reader is directed to Technical Reports
83-2 and 84-2 for data on these areas. However, the Ceastal Barrier
Units defined in these reports have been incorporated herein to
allow correlation of physiographic features and to orient the reader
to both systems so as to gain a comprehensive picture of the entire
coastal zone. ~o data in this report should be acted on without at
least consulting the equivalently delinEated arEa in the coastal
barrier reports.
The total estuarine area within the coastal zone boundaries from the
Lee-Collier County line at the north, US 41 at the east, the Turner
River canal at the southeast, and along the Ten Thousand Islands
chain westward to Cape Romano and north along the lagoonal margins
of the barrier islands, was calculated using a series or gridcied
polygons on the Collier County Highway Map.
11
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in Collier County, Florida (Modified from Maloney et 21. 1976).
12 --
Figure 3. Map depicting Coastal Zone Man2~ement Units, ColliLr County,
Florida. Coastal zone dLlineated on eastern boundary by lS 41
(see text). Right: Coast?} Zone Barrier Island Lnits; Left:
Coastal Zone Drainag~ Districts.
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The total area ~as calculated to he 327.93 sq. miles. Of this
110.49 sq. miles (approximately 33%) waf water, giving a water to
lan~ ratio of 1:2.9E. Lehman (1978) lifts the respective acreage
figures for estuarine bays, coastal marshes, and mangroves, 2S
52,198, 25,936 and 98,780 acres based on computations frorr the
land-use map of 1973. This computes to approximately 81.6 sq. miles
of estuarine bays, 45.2 sq. miles of coastal marshes, and 154.3 sq.
miles of mangroves, for a total of 281 sq. miles of wetland. This
computation compares favorably with the amount calculated in this
report because the latter also included non-wetland areas (e.g.
upland pine barrens east of the coastal lagoon but west of US 41).
According to Lehman (op. cit.) 13% of Collier County consists of
these estuarine-associated wetland corr~unities. The total coastal
estuarine area of about 328 sq miles is roughly 15% of the total
area of the county (about 2219 sq miles). Applying Lehmanls data it
can be seen that estuarine bays comprise about 4%, coastal marshes
about 2~, and mangroves about 7% of the total county area. The
remaining 2~ consists of vegetated and developed areas within the
coastal estuarine system as delineated in this report. The relative
and cumulative water to land ratios are plotted for the delineated
drainage districts in Figure 4.
15
Figure 4. Water: Land ratios in Collier County, Florida. The actual
number (left scale, ordinate) and cumulative number (right
scale, ordinate) of square miles of water is plotted against
the cumulative square miles of land. Drainage districts are
listed progressing from north to south to east. The percentage
of water to land in square mileage (solid line) cap. be compared
to the actual numbers of square miles of water (large dashed
line) and to the cumulative square miles of water (small dashed
line). The percentage of water to land (right ordinate) shows
that the highest ratios occur in the Camp Keasis, and
Okaloacoochee-Fakahatche drainage districts.
16
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SECTION 4
GEOLOGY
A. General Topography And Soils
Collier County is part of the western flatlands of the southern
Florida geological region, nn area that also includes the coastal
zone along the Gulf of Mexico as far south as the Gordo~ Pass-Naples
Bay area. The two areas are considered by some to fOrTI, a distinct
region of their own extending southward, and appear si~ilar to areas
seen ir. the Atlantic coastal strip. They are poorly drained, have
elevations lower than 30-40 feet (with some exceptions on Horr's
Island), and are mostly overlain by soils from the Pamlico terrace
sands. Abutting or overlying the latter on the coastal barrier
islands are marine sands of recent origin (Davis 1943).
Throughout Collier County the soils are mostly of marine orlgln, and
usually lie directly over marls, limestones, or calcareous
sandstones. These soil types produce alkaline conditions which are
favorable to growth of certain types of vegetation, especially that
associated with cabbage palm hammocks and inland pine barrens.
The fluviatile mucks carried by the several rivers and creeks in the
area join with estuarine muds and peats formed from mangrove tree
leaf litter to make up a second major soil component. The mangrove
strands and adjacent saltwater marshes of the Ten Thousand Islancs
area exemplify such soils. These heavily vegetated areas are a~ong
the largest of their kind in the world and are exceeded only by some
coastal areas in the western Pacific and southeast Asia.
Interior sands and clays tend to be very finely divided, and poorly
draining for the most part, so that large areas of standing water
may occur seasonally. These soils gain their nutritive component
primarily from the leaf litter of the surrounding vegetation. ~~t:ch
of the nutrients are recycled in situ. ~~ny of the dominant plant
species are relatively shallow-rooted and thus respond more rapidly
to environmental perturbations than their ~ore deeply-rooted
counterparts in hammocks or along estuarine margins. Jo'..any species
are also intimately tied to fire ecology (e.g. pines), and require
periodic burn-overs to force seed germination as well as to remove
competitive understory growth.
Many of the rivers and creeks in the southwestern Florida flatlands
are dro~~ed river remnants produced through sea-level rise during
periods of interglaciation. The mangrove forests that border ttese
rivers may be growing in muck up to 10 feet deep. In fact, most of
the southwestern coastline is a drowned shore along which are
interspersed barrier islands that appear to be bar-bui:t, although
there is some evidence that progradation of beaches may also have
played a role in their formation. Y~ny of these barriers support an
active dune ridge system. Some of theses ridges are up to 50 ft high
and thus comprise the highest coastal elevations in southern
Florida.
18
As noted in Technical Heport 84-2 the coastal barriers are actively
migrating, dynamic systems which derive their sedimentary budget
frem a complex interplay of longshore coastal currents, fresh apd
e~tuarine water outflows, and wave and tidal fluctuations. Sands
tend to be qcartizite, interspersed with shell hash and other
rioclastic cC:~.Fonents which are foUl:c throughout the barrier systerr,
and are maintained or renewed primarily from offshore processes. On
the lagoonal side of barrier islands sediments tend to be finely
divided muds, with sC2ttered shell components derived from recent
molluscan assemblages. The influence of large mangrove forests on
the formation and maintenance of estuarine islands behind the
barrier system is disputed. Some (e.g. Hoffmeister ]974) hold that
the Ten Thousand Islands system may be a proto-barrier system in
formation. There is no doubt that mangrove-associated islands do
occur, either in conjunction with, or as a result of, islands formed
from biotic means such as oyster bars or vermetid molluscan reefs.
Overall, the drainage and composition of Collier County soils is
quite varied. The soils range from well drained to very poorly
drained. Many soils (e.g. Plumrr,er Arzell, (harolotte, and Bro\o;ard
Sands) are half bog soils with a sand intermix. These are hydric
soils that often remain covered by water for part or most of the
vear. They are also part of 2 self-generating system because bog
soils are ~ consequence of flood conditions and poor drainage. Thus
organic decomposition is prevalent both during and after fluc-
tuations in the water level. Because of their hydricity such soils
aid in water retention until the next hydrological sequence.
B. Coastal Stratigrapr.y
The periodic marine transgression and regression of warm, shallow,
seas over the southwestern part of the peninsula is responsible for
most of the geological features laid down and extant today. Hany of
the organisms living in the marginal, tropical seas existed in a
carhonate-bao~ed system in ,,'hich their exoskeltons were formed using
calcium carbonate. As these organism perished, through predation,
or extinction, the body parts were broken dow~ or dissolved and
limestone was formed. The continual deposition of sediments built
up stratigraphic layers of limestone. As the seas retreated this
carbonate sandY-Silty rock became exposed to aerial weathering and
hardening. The basement l~rnestone eventually was covered with late
Pleistocene and recent sands over most of the county, with some
locally restricted hard rock exposures still appearing in the upper
northeastern and eastern portions. These layers ere important for 3
reasons: 1) they are relatively shallow; 2) they are relatively
permeable; ard 3) they are relatively extensive. The soil layer
above the limestone ~s also quite shallow. Thus, only certain types
of plants can survive for sufficientl:: long periods to alIa,,'
ecosystem formation to occur. Other vegetation had to adapt to a
shallow humus or peat-like situation in order to grow in the
interior of the county.
19
The good permeability of the overlying soils in some areas allov..ed
seasonally heavy rainfall to percolate through the underlying
limestones and be stered as pot~ble water in an extensive, easily
tapped aquifer system. But at the same time, any excessive rainfall
was not always so accommodated, with the result that large are~1S of
the surface became flc0~ed. In some cases plant communities evolved
in the resultant depressions, sinkholes, solution holes, and other
features of karst topography. Other communities had to adapt to
periodic, or long-term standing water. This water slowly ran off
toward the west and southwest in a wide, shallow sheet flow, to
eventually trickle through the phytal communities which were
established along the coastal margins.
A major consequence of this flow was the concomitant establishment
of a large estuarine system along the lower western and southwestern
coasts of Collier County. This system received marine influences
from the adjacent Gulf of Mexico, and freshwater influences fro~
sheet flow, subterranean seepage, and direct rainfall. In response
to these factors three major vegetational systems became established
wit]:in the estuaries: a predominantly marine-influenced ~ea~.rass
comrr,-unity; an estuarine-influenced mangrove forest, backed by - large
salt marshes; and vegetated uplands, where salt water incursion
limited seaward invasion by pine and sabal palm, and where a
pine-cypress vegetational community became established in the
freshest areas.
According to Davis (1943) sedimentary rocks more than 10 kilometers
(about 6 miles) thick underlie all of south Florida. This area of
the state is therefore depositional, and was predominantly forr..ed in
a highly sedimented marine environment, coupled with emergent and
resubmergent episodes corresponding to glaciation.
Collier County is geologically part of the Intermediate Coastal
Lowlands, a vast area that includes (but is not restricted to) the
Everglades, the Immokalee Rise, the Big Cypress spur and south-
western slope and adjacent regions. Collier County also belongs to
a second grouping of geological features termed the Gulf Coastal
Lowlands. These include Reticulate Coastal Swamps and the Ten
Thousand Islands, Gulf Coastal Lagoons and Barrier Chains, Gulf
Coastal Estuaries, Coastal Swamps and drowned Coastal Karst, and
Aeolian (subaerial) features.
Davis (1943) states that the most important geological formations in
this area are the Buckingharr, Harl, the Tamiami Limestone, the
Pamlico Sands, the Anastasia Formation, and several lesser marls.
Cooke (1945) describes the Buckingha~ Marl as a cream-colored
calcareous clay that weathers into a hard limestone. This forcation
is fcund only in the northern parts of the county.
The remainder of the county is underlain by the Tamiami Li~estone.
This is a nearly pure quartz sand to sandy limestone composite that
is usually quite hard and riddled with solution holes. The
formation, Miocene in age, is a near-shore shallow-water rock formed
and deposited in the marine littoral or shallow sublittoral zones.
20
Parts of this limestcr.~ are made up of bioclastic sediments, as well
as liffiestone sands or s~:ts. At least 25 species of shallow water
marine molluscan or ecr:noderm ~cnera have been commonly found in,
or associated with, thi~ formatioD. Many of the fossil genera still
occur today in the shallow bays and estuaries along the southwestern
coast. (Puri & Verner 196~).
Above the Tamiarri Forrnatic'D lies the Pamlico Sand, a Plio-Pleisto-
cene formation of quartz sand that is essentially non-fossiliferous.
Pamlico Sand is an interglacial deposit, generally covering the
county to a depth of atout one foot except along the coast where it
may be substantially tticker. Ir contrast to the Tamiami limestones
whicr were formed ir. ar. open, shlllow sea (neretic) environment
relatively close to a large river mouth or estuary, the Famlico
Sands show few sedimentological features. w~ereas the Tamiami
Limestone exhibits evi~ence of oyster bars, barnacle assemblages,
shallow water echin0de~s, mollc:scs, bryozoans and other marine
invertebrates, the Pam:icc Sand is essentially featureless.
The Anastasia Formatio~ is a f1l;c to coarse conglomerate of shells,
clastics and sancstone. This formation is found locally along the
southwestern coast 01 Collier County and to some extent inland where
it gradually disappear~ or becoEEs indistinguishable from the
Tamiami limestone of tte Coral Reef aquifer system (see page 00).
Tne Anastasia Formatio~ is primarily a coastal formation, often very
well lithified. Ir. other regions of Florida, from Fernandina Beach
southward to the vicinity of Ft. Lauderdale, it is more extensive
and may be over leO ft. thick i~ some places. There, as in Collier
County, it is a coastal formation.
Another formation which is ofte~ interspersed above the Tamiami
Formation is the Fort ThoEpson Formation. This stratigraphic layer
provides evidence of f~eshwater deposition and both precedent and
recedent marine trar.s~ressions. It is composed of sandy shelly
marls and hard sandy l~~estones, exhibiting both marine and
freshwater facies, with the latter being more prevalent. This
sequence was probably formed by deposits of a freshwater marsh over
which the sea transgressed periodically. Freshwater shells
(Gastropoda) are evide~t throughout.
Two other lesser fOTD2tions ha\"e also been recorded for Collier
County, the Caloosahatchee Marl and Miami oolite. The former,
which is composed of either sand and shells, or just shells occurs
at the northern border of the county. The Miami oolite is a soft
white oolitic liffi€stone co~rosed of 95% pure calcium carbonate.
This formation occurs cnl~ in the southeastern corner of the Big
Cypress area anc rests unccmfurn:ably on the Tamiami Formation.
The geological processes that took place in the past are in large
part responsible for much or the present day ecological chara-
cteristics of Collier County. The shallow, poorly draining sands
overlying a hard but o:ten permeable limestone basement produced
21
both standing water and well-charged aquifers. Overland sheet flow
to the south/southwest is 80cther consequence of the basement rock
and the slight geological tilt that the mainland exhibits to the
southwest, (see McPhersl'!~ 1974). With barrier island formatior.
came the establishment of back-barrier lagoons open to the marine
w2ters of the Gulf at varying times and distances along their
length. The coastal estuarine system is thus a consequence of
these and other geological features and processess. Davis (1943) was
quite correct in stating that "Geologic features cannot be con-
sidered entirely apart from other features but are an integral
part of sum of all the natural features of southern Florida".
C. Collier County Aquifers
Yearly rainfall in Collier County ranges from 30 to 70 inches. Much
of this fluctuation is a result of seasonally adverse conditions
(i.e. drought or hurricane and tropical storm occurrence). A
consequence is that the water table fluctuates in response to these
conditions. Further fluctuations in the water table may be produced
as a result of man's demand on the aquifers.
The surface elevations in the Naples area range from 15-25 ft. with
a gradual slope toward the south and east (Klein 1954). The area
is blanketed with permeable sands, resulting in rapid percolation
with little or no standing water. Overland runoff is also of little
consequence. l-Iajor groundwater losses are due to evapotranspiration
from vegetation, continuous underground seepage (see Heald et al.
]978), and pumping dra~dow~. The highest rates of seepage t;ke-
place during heavy rainfall when surface waters percolate dOw~ward
or enter the marine environment via the Gordon River and its
associated creeks and tributaries. These waters eventually enter
the subsurface aquifer. Such seepage to the confining layers of the
groundwater aquifer, as well as to the shallow artesian aquifer (see
below), is important because it recharges the system. All water
that supplies the residential and municipal wells in the Naples area
is derived from local rainfall, either directly or indirectly.
There are two shallow non-artesian aquifers in Collier County, the
Pleistocene-aged Upper Anastasia-Pamlico Aquifer that occurs to
about 32-55 ft. below reean sea level (MSL) , and a portion of the
Upper Tamiami Formation (Miocene-aged) termed the Coral Reef
Aquifer. ^ third aquifer, and most ireportant, is the still
relatively shallow artesian aquifer associated and defined by the
main Tamiami Formation limestone. The depth ranges to 80 ft. or
greater below MSL. The city wells tap primarily this aquifer,
although several wells also tap the shallow ~on-artesian aquifer
(see Fig. 5).
The recently identified Coral Reef aquifer systerr. occupies a lcrge
area in west-central Collier County. This aquifer has been
distinguished from the Anastasia-Pamlico shallow aquifer primacily
by an associated geological facies of patch reef corals and
bryozoans. The aquifer is up to 50 ft. thick and consists at the
surface of Pamlico Sand and an unnamed underlying calcareous
22
...\. lW.." II :IIi" ~~ .1III11U..-
_r _II .._., .,,_. t
~
-<
0::
~
.,
c:.J 0 ::J (l 0 0 " ~..... ~~) 0
. I
~=--
, ~ c:;J
<10000:10 ~
b'
I~
Oa:
0...-
~fu
wZ
~
~
. II
" I
r' ':
~,II,
~I'
I '
I
I
'-...!
<100000
(<<I ~ 6
~~ ~~~ ~
~i ~
rff) ~
~~ <]000000
000 0
410 q;;) ,.... a:)
Figure 5.
(1;:j) Hid 30
Schematic lllustratlon of geological formations and
hydrological cycles 1n Colller County, Florlda.
23
sandstone of Pleistocene age (probably Anastasia Forrr:ation). Below
these strata is the highly porous, fossiliferous Pinecrest Member of
the Tamiami Fom,at ion which ranges in depth from 10-30 ft. The
basement strata for the Coral Reef Aquifer is the Miocene and
Pliocene Ochopee Limestone of the Tamiami Formation, which lies
under a confining bed of Bonita Springs Marl. The Fort Thompson
Formation has not been identified within the Coral Ree1 Aquifer, but
the presence of hard, often shelly sandstone, may be remnants of
this fe2ture. The Coral Reef Aquifer, showing as it does many
features in common with the Pamlico-Anastasia aquifer may, in fact,
be the eastern component of the latter. It differs only in that the
Tamiami Limestone lies directly underneath, rather than separatec
by an intervening layer identified as the Anastasia Formation.
Because the Coral Reef Aquifer is not confined it is not artesian.
As in the other systems in the county recharge is mostly by
rainwater.
Underlying the Tamiami Formation is the Hawthorne Formation, a
Miocene-aged limestone that supports some free-flowing (i.e.
artesian) wells, but which functions primarily as an a~uaclude
ranging in depth form 50-150 ft. below MSL. Beneath the Hawthorne
aquaclude lies the most important deep artesian aquifer, that of
the Tampa Formation. This limestone, of Oligocene age, is a major
source of water for agricultural irrigation, and wells extend into
it as deep as 600 ft. or more below MSL. Whereas the overlying
Hawthorne formation is composed mostly of sand and green clay marls,
the Tampa Formation (also known as the Floridan Aquifer) is made up
of sandy permeable limestone and calcareous sandstones. This
aquifer ranges in thickness from 80-120 ft. in some areas, up to
2000 ft. in otter areas. The overlying Eawthorne Formation varies
much less widely in thickness, rangeing from 250-300 ft. THe upper
layers of the Tampa Formation meet the marly and thin limestone
capping layers of the lower Hawthorne formation, and the clay silt
beds of the lower Tamiami Formation. Both of these strata act as
confining beds (aquacludes) for the Florida A~uifer.
D. Salt Water Intrusion
The close proxirrity of the Gulf of Mexico marine waters and the
permeability of the basement limestones, allow seawater to extend
inland during tidal extremes, and to percolate downward in some
cases into the soils and shallow aquifers. Marine salinities, for
example, have been recorded well into Kaples Bay and up the Gordon
River. The Ten Thousand Islands region has been characterized as a
completely tide-influenced coastal watershed, and the presence of
flourishing mangrove trees north of US 41 provides one indication of
how far inland saline waters can penetrate.
The average amplitude of the tidal cycle along the Collier County
coastline is approximately 3-4 ft. over a given tidal cycle. The
heights will vary depending on the phases of the moo~ and whether
it is in apogee or perigee. In addition, the presence of onshore
winds, especially from the southwest, c~n act to drive marine waters
farther inland, or contrarily, detain the drainages of such waters
from inland areas beyond the predicted time. Coupled with these
24
factors are the unpredicta~]c etfects oi tropical storm surges wtich
can ferce large amounts of saline water well inland during
excessively high storm tides.
According to Klein (195') the tidal fluctuations in the Gulf of
Mexicc are reflected in water levels in non-artesian wells near
shore. If such wells have a sufficiently large freshwater lens, the
wells remain potable and little intrusion can occur. In other
cases, where severe short-term, or heavy and continuous long-term
drawdown has taken place, the lowering of the water table during
tidal fluctuation will allow salt water to intrude. This effect,
again, is more noticeable in coastal wells (or those sunk on barrier
islands) than in wells located farther inland. (See Fig. 6)
The intrusion of marine waters into the ground water table will
exert some effect on the local ecological systems. The actual
effects are quite complicated and much depends on the amount of
intrusion and the ability of maritime plant assemblages to tolerate
brackish ground water. ~~ny coastal plants. for example, are
adapted at least partial::. to soils with a high salt content and can
tolerate much exposure. Others are able to survive only if exposure
is short term (for example during storm tide washovers). The
presence of saline v-ster ir: soil s may itself only be d. short terTI'
event if heavy rains occur in association with the intrcsion. In
such a case much or all of the salt may be washed away with little
or no elevation of soil s~linity.
The underground saltwater interface, as pointed out by Klein (1954),
is a fluctuating front that can slowly advance inland, or rise from
below a shallow aquifer, not only during periods of high pumping but
also during drought. By the same token during periods of low
pumping, or during heavy rains ill the wet season, the salt
water-freshwater interrace may Dove do~~wayd and seaward again. The
important point is that i~ sufficient recharge is not available
to balance the amount 0: fr-eshwater lost or withdrawn then a slow
inland and upward moveffie~t of the saline front will occur. Drainage
canals, for example, can allow a rapid decline of ground water
levels. If these declines extend far enough back into the recharge
areas serious salt water encroachment will occur.
Vegetational changes have taken place over much of the southwestern
Florida area. Alexander- & Crook (1974) have pointed out that slowly
rising sealevels (approximately 3 inches per 100 yrs) are rartially
responsible. They note fLrther that because the general slope
of the land is so shallo~:, and because the land itself is of such
low elevation, little rise in sealevel is needed to flood the
coastal areas with waters of higher salinity. The extensive
mangrove and salt maysh communities (with 13 and 23 species
respectively; Long 1974) are one indication of this geophysical
phenomenon. Lowered water table owing to inland water drainage
suppert these communities (Tabb ~ al. 1962). As freshwater
communities die back or are exterminated by sea level rise and saJt
water intrusion, estuarine com~unities succeed them. In a sense,
more estuarine communities are being created, but at the expense
of upland freshwater comr.,unities.
25
\ ' , . ' l> .. ~EYEL.. : .
_.& . J\ _ SHALLOW .
:-'" ..'::~~~C':~,~~~ ,',. (ANASTAS I AN)
..SALT; ,.' .^'4,. ,,::'..:\>:' AQU I FER
WAT~R;r~.(:;,\.:. BEO- _ :-~-
_ _ _ SEMI-CONfINING--::--===--==-_':-:=- -:
- ..-~-
SEMI-ARTESIAN WELL_______
~
ARTESIAN WELL S
IMPROPERLY PROPERL....
CASED CASED
.....(1 ""'r
WATER
EXCESSIVE PUMPAGE
NEAR COAST
'J.
. f. 1-:
'. FR.E.St:1;' ~ \
WATER,' .
~. ----
--- -
.::::-- ---- --- .
" ,FRESH' . ~ .'.
WA"T ER a' - 1
--:: - --
--::::- --=
.TAMIAMl ^QUIF~R.
'(SEr'll-ARTE~lA~) .
- ---
-::::::-
------ --- ---
----- --- --
--- -- --- -- ------
---- -- --- -- ...-
BED -- --- ------
-- --- ---- --- ---
-- --------
-:::::--
-
-- -
t-~3
-
1==-
_ __ _ _CON;:INlNG
- ---
- --- -- - - --
~- - - --
- - - --- -- ---.--:--
- --
--~ --
o
o
o
1
o
.
: 1
o
"
()
~
"
~
C>
"
C> 0 ~~
.:>
0
~ v 0
o
0 (;>
0 0 ~ 0
6 C C
0 0
0 " ;;) "
~ b 0
0 0 ::;,
0 0
0 0
0 0
6 0 0
c
c
D
()
11
.
(.. , c'
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"
:7
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e.
c
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,~
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0 0 " 0 0
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R A C K I S H A T E -
-
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FLORIDAN AQUIFER
(P,RTESIAN)
~
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o
<>
C-' (1
Figure 6.
Schematic cross-section of Collier County acquifer systems
showing possible causes for salt-water intrusion into coast31
wells (after Gee & Jensen 1980).
26
SECTlON 5
CLIMATOLOGY - HYDROLOGY
A. Climate
Extending southward toward the equator, the lower peninsula of
Florida enjoys a predominantly subtropical climate, although much of
the flora and fauna is tropical in origin. Many of the species of
animals and plants arrived on Floridan shores during or after the
several marine transgressions, especially those occurring during the
Pleistocene when south Florida passed through many episodes of
island formation and deformation. The Florida Current (erroneously
called the Gulf Steam) in the Straits of Florida and the Atlantic,
and the Loop Current system in the Gulf of Mexico, were also
instrumental in bringing tropical species to south Floridan shores.
These large-scale, warm-water currents also directly affect the
climatology of the region and are a major factor in determining
cloud buildup and subsequent periods of rainfall. At present,
rainfall values may range from 30 to over 70 inches per year in
southwest Florida, with a generally accepted average of 55-60
inches. Such high amounts of rainfall, in conjunction with
generally amenable mean yearly temperatures from 60-70oF, support a
tropical or subtropical flora. This, in turn, supports a fauna
which, depending on how intimately tied it is to marine, or
freshwater - terrestrial conditions, originated primarily from the
tropical, or warm-temperate regions, respectively. This biota has
adapted to the typical warm-wet vs. cool-dry seasonality that
characterizes many subtropical-tropical coastal regions of the
world. The plant communities are more intimately tied to the
hydroperiod than are the animals; however, the entire faunal food
web is based on the responses of non-phytal organisms, from protists
through birds, reptiles and mammalian carnivores, to the vege-
tational patters.
B. Hydrologic Cycles And ~ater Budgets
Collier County is characterized by low relief and poor drainage.
Little or no soil occurs over large portions, and in some areas the
basement Tamiami Limestone is exposed where weathering, or peat and
muck fires, have burned off the topsoil. In lower depressions large
deposits of organic soils, peats, and mucks are found in cor.junction
with standing water. The occurrence of these hydric areas depends
in a large part on the surrounding surface topography and con-
comitant drainage patterns. The underlying marl or rock strata can
also have an important influence on the resulting hydrological
regimen.
Collier County is subtropical and exhibits a pronounced wet-dry
seasonality. The wet or rainy season extends from about May through
October. April and November are transitional months, and the dry
season occurs from December, through March (the end of "winter"
temperatures). The first time that water temperatures in the estuary
27
consistently exceed 240C may be as early as March (Hicks, in Simpson
1979) or as late as April (yc,kel 1975). This parameter signals
the spring warmi~g trend an~ subsequent phytoplanton blooms t~at
trigger the early ~coplankton-carnivorc-herbivorc cycles in the
environment.
Coupled with increasing water temperatures is 1) increased daylength
and concomitant solar radiation, and 2) increased precipitation.
These two factors act in concert with nutrient-laden runoff from
inland areas to produce increased plant growth in the estuary.
Because of the large area ef land over which surface (and shallow
ground water) runoff takes place, the estuaries of Collier County
receive large discharges of fresh, nutrient-enriched waters. This
can act beneficially by providing nutrients to the estuarine flora,
but at the same time may also produce osmotic stress in the
estuarine fauna. Such inputs may be short or long term depending on
the precipitation cycle.
In association with spriI'g and early summer increases in "Tater
temperatures a weak thern-oeline may be formed in the marine
environment. ~ithin the estuary, temperature inversions may occur
and dense highly saline water, low in oxygen, may underlie less
dense, lower salinity layers. As noted for Naples Bay, many of the
finger canals exhibit noticeable salinity or temperature stra-
tifications and are often poorly flushed over any tidal cycle.
Increasing anoyia in these areas may lead to fish kills which, owing
to subsequent decomposition, increases the prevailinf anaerobiosis
thereby exacerbating the situation.
The large areas covered with water both on land and in the shallow
coastal regions also perrr.it a high amount of evaporation to occur.
w~en coupled with evapotcar,spiration this can result in high
humidity and an extre~ely high rate of water loss. One model
(Lehman 1978) bas estimdtf'C this loss to be nearly 5000 acre-ft/year
for the county (See Fig. i). This loss must be made up by
precipitation if a viable water budget is to be maintained. The
sa~e model hypothesizes rair,fall equivalent to about 5300
acre-it/year, but it must be remembered that over any given year
rainfall may vary widely from 30 to over 70 inches. Thus, periods
of water enrichment or even overabundance may be followed by periods
of drought. The state-wide general rainfall average is appro-
ximately 50-55 inches If none of this rainfall evaporated or ran
off the entire Flcrida peninsula would be covered with water "breast
deep" (Cooke 1939). In another study, Thomas (1974) collated
raiI'fall records from 1825 through 1968 and showed that on the lower
Gulf Coast rainfa:l 2veragerl between 55-60 inches. He concurred
with other authors i~ stating that the area south of the Ft.
Myers-Melbourne line, iI' which the average temperature does not fall
consistently below 640F, could be classified as Tropical Rainy.
This annual average is subject to some variation, especially where
monthly averages of precipitation are concerned. For example, in
January rainfall may be as low as 1-2 inches, but in September cs
high as 9-10 inches. (But see also Maloney ~~. 1976).
28
Figure 7.
:z
o
~
<(
ex:
CONSUMPTIVE USE
149
'I
o
~
Storages in chouiands of acre-ft
Flow in thouSilnds of acre-It per year
Balance. Inflaws - Outflows
6523 6875
. ]52 Ann~al O"ficit
County ~Her budget OdSed 011 SIII'ple I',odel,
Schematic illustratlon of a typical water budget for
coastal Collier County, Florida (modified from
Le h man n, 1 9 78 ) .
29
The ~et-dry seasonal cycles arc of great iDportance to the ter-
restrial and estuarine ecology of Collier County. These cycles,
coupled with poor dra~n2Fe conditions an~ ~ide areas of sanoy soils
allc~ extensive ~evelop~ent of marshes, f~dmps and wet prairies en
the one hand, and dry prairl~s 2nd dry pinclands on the ether. All
of these co~munities :';C intimately As::=ociated with a long
hydroperiod, either directly or indirectly. The former require
almost continuOlls standing water for maintenance, whereas the latter
act as percolation/filter mechanisms for shallow aquifer recharge.
Tied to the water cycle and thus the recharge of aquifers are the
seasonal thunderstorms which are fOl~ec and maintained by rapid
convection currents produced as a partial consequence of high
evapcrative rates. It is easily visualized that if evapotrans-
piration releases more water into the atITcsphere than is normally
replenished by rainfall (for example, if rc.in falls into the Gulf or
to the east of the cocnty borders), then drought conditions become
in~inent. This is especially true if 1) recharge fro~ aquifers to
the north of the county is slo~ec or interrupted and 2) continued
drawdewl1 of shal low water tables by a burf:eoning population wit~.in
tne County further depletes these asuifers.
Davis (1943) was aW2H: of this when he stated:" . the very
delicate balances of water conditions over large areas in this
section are the results of vegetation as ~ell as climate".
Furthermore, the nature of the soils is also a factor in water
supply ~nd the soils ~hould be associated witn climatological
effects. Thomas (1974) sounds 2 ~ore ominous warning wten he
writes: "Without careful rr.anagement e,f the state's most preciot:s
resource, Water, we ITEY well read a paper by some specialist of the
future stating that the ecenomic and social failure of [southern]
Florida was due to its unique climate, even though that climate
remained essentially ce,nstant".
C. Tidal Influences
The Collier County cca::=tline is influencec by a semi-diurnal tide,
although most of the tidal period in the remainder of the Gulf of
Mexico is primarily diurnal (that is, occurring once every 24 hours
50 ~inutes; Smith 1974). Tidal conditions, coupled with a rela-
tively strong longshore currel:t system, Ect in concert to form and
shape the coastline. The formation of coastal islands along the
lower southwestern peninsula rright have teen in response to several
bio-geological factors. For exarrple, lo~gshore currents deposited
mounds of quarzite sa~ci on exposed Miocene rock of the Tamiami
formation. According to one theory these mounds eventua:ly were
celonized by oysters. This, in turn, allowed continuing sediment
entrapment among the oyster valves and e\.entually the formation of
an oyster reef. The reef then was colonized by mangrove propagules,
further building up s(cimentary deposits. Over geological time, and
with the influences of tidal ingression and regression, small
islands grew into larger islands. Thi8 ~~ocess is thought to be
continuing today in the Ten Thousand Islands area (HoffEeister
1974) .
30
The Ten Thousand Islands area is one of the largest coastal swaeps
in the world, covering over 200 sq miles of the lower southwestern
Collier County coastline. It is also one of the largest estuarine
systems on earth, mairtaining both mangrove-based, and salt
M?rsh-based, ecological systems. Although the Ten Thousand Island
system is extant and reascnably viable, other estuarine systeres
related to this, and ~hich extended up the entire lower western
coastline of Florida to the Tampa Bay region, are now mostly
extirpated.
Back barrier mangrove swamps still exist along some parts of the
coast, and in Collier County range in development from prime, nearly
undisturbed stands (e.g. Rookery Bay region) to isolated, de-
generating systems (~iggins Pass region). These back barrier, and
barrier-lagoonal mangrove and salt marsh biotopes form the
connecting link between the marine and freshwater environments in
Collier County. Inundated either partially or completely over a
tidal cycle. nutrients were provided or carried away. and a complex
detrital-based pathway became established. This pathway forms the
basis for the mangrove. salt marst, and ultimately the entire
estuarine food chain. A distinct flora and fauna is associated ~ith
these habitats; a biota which responds to. and is influenced by, the
tidal cycles. Many of the species are of conm,ercial or pathological
inportance, a prime example of the latter being the salt marsh
mosquito, Aedes taeniorhynchus.
D. Drainage Basins And Canals ln Collier County
A series of naturally formed drainage basins exist in the county.
These basins have determined in large part both the geological and
recent historical water flow patterns from the interior to the
coast. The Immokalee Highlands might be considered the headwater
region for much of this flow, because these areas rise to about 45
ft above_MSL. Some of the dr2inage pathways are discrete rivers or
creeks (e.g. Gordon River-Rock Creek Basin, Cocoh~tchee River
Basin). Others are wide gently sloping regions supporing several
creeks and tributaries (e.g. Belle Meade Basin or Camp Keasis
Basin). Still others are recognized by the large regions of sheet
flow that slowly wend through the area to the Gulf (e.g.
Okaloacoochee-Fakahatchee Basin; Fig. 8). By looking at the contour
intervals from the interior of the county to the coastal mag ins it
is easily seen how these basins act in transporting water. It i8
readily apparent that in the past Collier County consisted of a
series of overlapping, progressively more shallow, strands tre~ding
toward the coast. The Ten Thousand Islands area will, in some
future time, undoubtedly add yet another contour interval of tte
same order of magnitude should geological history continue
uninterruptedly as it has in the past (Fig. 9).
31
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~igure 8. Schematic illustration of general flow direction for surface and
shallow subsurface aauifer waters, Collier County, Florida
(r-1odified frorl Klein et al. 1970)
32
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Figure 9. Geogr2ohiCn1 contour lnterv0l~ showing ancient marine terraces
in Collier County, P}orlr'a (Hodlfieo from ~1a1oney ~~. 1976 .
33
Drainage basins are broad or narro~ channels for freshw~ter flow.
At the point where this sheet or rivFr flow meets marine waters
and becomes nrackisll to varying degrees, the estuary forms. During
the dry season tidal forces often overcome fresbwater flow, 2nd
salty (or at least less fresh water; may move or be forced back up
the cre0ks and alon~ the basins. ~11en the rainy season arrives
freshwater flow cften outweighs salt water intrusions and the
coastal bays and margins become subst2ntially less saline. The
movement of the two water-types produces an interface termed the
salinity line, a seasonally variable-demarcation between fresh and
brackish waters.
The construction of numerous highways and ether large thoroughfares
has interrupted much of the flm... through the historical drainage
basins, by either blocking it entirely, or diverting it lateral~y
into adjacent basins. Thus, a characterization of drainage regions
in the County today cannot rely entirely on geologically-established
basin bc~rdaries to delimit inland-coastal flow patterns. Present
drainage system boundaries must take into account the several large
highway systems that checkerboard the County. These include SF 8~
(Allig2tor Alley), rs 41 (Tamiarr,j Trail) and ravid C. Brov.Tt highway
tSR 846) in an east-west direction, and SR 951, Airport-Pulling
Road, Tamiami Trail ~., and several lesser north-south county roads
in the Fakahatchee-Big Cypress area. These boundaries are also
carried well into the coastal zone with the extensions of SR 92, SR
29, SR 951, SR 31 and several smaller roadways that lie normal to
the coastal margin.
The present cav road system has for-r..ed, in effect, a series of
basins, partially natural (from the old geologically determined
flo~vays) and partially artificial (determinec from the afore-
mentioned roadway mechanisms). These compartments may. at times,
become unwanted reservuirs for hea~y rainfall, resulting in flooding
that would not occur were the r02dwa~s not present. Contrarily,
during periods of drought these same compartments can act to store,
or at le8st detain for longer periods, much standing water. They
therefore have good and bad points, depending on the season and the
water levels present.
Many of the early developers of Collier County attempted to drain
the interior, reasonin~ that if the normally slow moving sheet flow
could be both speeded up and channelized high water levels would
cease to be a problem. An extensive series of drainage canals was
constructed curing the 1950-1960's, primarily in the Golden Cate
area, with two major conduits (the Golden Gate and the FakaUnion
Canals) dr8ining the re~ion. Two other canals, Cocohatchee and
Henderson Creek, drain areas closer to CS 41 in the northwestern and
southeastern portions of the count~., respectively. Farther to the
east the Barron River Ca~al and the Turner River Canal drain the
Gkaloacoochee Slough areas and the Turner Ri\'er Basin. Or.e other
canal, the l-28 Interceptor, runs diagonally across the far upper
northeastern right quadrant of county but exerts little effect
on south County water levels. Two highway cana~s, the Alligator
Alley and Tamiarni Canal run east-west.
34
An overview of the canal system in Collier County (Fig.l0) shows a
system of drainage cc,nduits that is a marve~ of terrestrial
plumbing. There is no doubt that the en~ireers who conceived and
carried out these projects knew ho~ to remove water very efficiently
from an area. It is also apparent from a cOffiparision of Fig. 8 & 10
that the canals are without equal 3S a point-source injection for
massive amounts of fresh water into the estuary. The coastal margin
which historically received runoff from the Cocohatchee, Gordon, and
Turner Rivers, and from Rock, Haldemann, He~derson and several
smaller creeks, now receives river-type inf~ow from canals
associated with some of these natural tributaries, as well as new
point injections from others (e.g. FakaUnion Canal). In addition to
the obvious detrimental impact such large arounts of freshwater may
have on the estuarine system, the drained fresh water is lost
forever to the Gulf of Mexico. A third effect of the canals is
the large amounts of nutrients injected into the coastal system.
A fourth, very dramatic effect is that by lowering the surface and
groundwater tables canals have increased the jeopardy of fires in
interior areas, thereby affecting the fire-ecology of interior Pine
Barrens. For example, Lehman (1978) notes that with the con-
struction of the Golden Gate system, wildfires in the county
increased catastrophically. In the 8 years prior to completion of
the system (1963-1978) a cumulative total of nearly 63000 acres
burned, but in 1971 the year of the system's completion, nearly
230,000 acres burned or nearly 4 times the entire amount of the
previous 8 years. The following 5 years brought an additional
325000 acres burned, for a yearly average of 65000 acres, or more
than the cumulative total for 1963-1970.
Yearly rainfall figures are also elucidative. From 1963-1970 an
average of 50.4 inches of rain was recorded; in 1971, the year of
canal system completion, 49 inches were recorded, and in the
subsequent 4 years (1972-1975) nearly 46 inches fell.
The highest number or wildfires (288) took place in 1971 but the 49
inches of rain that fell was not as available to keep acreage from
burning. The next highest wildfire years were in 1969 (2 years
before canal completion; 272 fires with only 6400 acres burned) and
1974 (3 years after canal completion), again with 272 fires but
nearly 158,500 acres burned. The figures speak for themselves.
Clark & Sarokwash (1975) addressed the problerrs or watershed
management and stated that preservation of natura: (as opposed to
constructed) drainage channels was beneficial not only for general
flow characteristics but for purification p:ocesses as well. They
stated that "all permanent and temporary riyers, streams, and
creeks, aDc all intermittently flooded drairageways such as sloughs
and swales, which convey land runoff toward coastal waters, should
be kept as near to their natural state as possible." They further
recommended that significant alteration of the natural volume, rate,
and pa~!ern ofrunof:f from watersheds and ccastal waterbasins should
b~--av.s.id_~~_~ cO~_~X211ing the extent and marmer or land clearing, -.
grading, draining, surfacing, and structures and excavations in the
watershed.
35
WESTE RN COLLIE R COUNTY
\'i
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Canal and Water
Le~el Control Structure
Figure 10.
Collier County canal svste~ and water discharge-
control structures (Fro~ Black, Crow and Eidsness,
Inc.) .
36
SECTION 6
HUtAN USE AND IMPACT
Background
The southwestern Florida area has experienced intermittent gro....:h
since the early 1830's. but the population did not noticeably
expand until near the turn of the 19th Century. Prior to this,
man's impact on the estuarine systems in Collier County was minimal,
and confined primarily to agriculture, fishing, hunting. and cottage
industries such as charcoal-making. with some lumbering also taking
place. Adverse environmental impact was therefore easily absorbed.
and the area continued to function as a rich source of plants 2~d
animals.
Modern development, starting around the beginning of the 20th
century and continuing to present, has taken two major directic~s.
In the early days most land clearing and topographical modification
was directed toward agricultural pursuits. With the increasin~:y
prominent place that tropical Florida was assuming as a tourist
mecca, further developmental plans were directed toward housin~ and
recreation for new residents and visitors. Most early developcent
took place on upland areas (which were more desirable because the
mosquito problem was less than on the estuary). Even this de-
velopment had some impact on water quality in the coastal lagoons.
With increasing ditching, diking and canal excavation. the draining
water, and its contained loads of nutrients, sediments. and
dissolved substances was no longer filtered by salt marsh, man-
groves. and other vegetation before reaching the coastal waters.
Instead, drainage was relatively rapid and one consequence was the
increase of turbidity within the coastal lagoon. Although turtidity
does not overtly affect either mangrove forests or marsh grass-
lands, it does have a pronounced effect on shallow seagrass be~s.
wnen combined with the increasing amounts of sediments carried in by
river transport or canal flow, much of the seagrass areas died. The
loss of these and other vital nursery habitats for invertebrate and
fishes alike soon became apparent.
Coastal construction and land alteration began in earnest after
World War II. ~~ny of the servicemen stationed in south Florica
liked what they saw and returned. Local land developers were cuick
to accommodate these new settlers. The advent of the dredge-a~d-
fill type of development caused massive destruction of estuarine
habitat and the associated mangrove and salt marsh fringes. Because
these lands were considered to be relatively useless (until as
recently as 1970). no effort was made to protect them. Water
quality, already degraded in places. now took a catastrophic dive.
~~en concerned citizens finally became sufficiently alarmed it ~as,
in many cases, almost or actually too late. Several studies (e.g.
Simpson 1979; and a series of publications put out by The Con-
servation Foundation) noted the damage done to estuarine habitc.ts
and pointed out the high rates of pollution in once relatively clean
estauries. More importantly, the recreational and ecological values
of estuarine wetlands were becoming better appreciated, as were the
37
dollar values associotcd with theffi. Regardless of this new
understanding and appreciation vit~l ~~tuarine-associateu llabitats
are stil] being destroyed, at rates as high as 0.5% of the total
coastal land per year. fince 195~ over one million acres ot ccastal
wetlands have been lost in the Unitcci States (Grosselink 1980). In
Collier County in 1900 uplands constituted 29%, C028tal lands 13%
and wetlands 58% of tlle total lar,c erea. By 1973 uplands had been
reduced to 22% by the creation 01 truck crops and pasture land.
Although the total area of coastal lands did not change, wetlands
decreased to 331.., with 301' of the original 58% now devoted to
agriculture. Of the 33% remaining, 11% of the wetlands are drained
while 22% remain undrained (Lehman 1978).
B. Demofraphi~ects In Collier County
Collier County has rightfully been considered the last, relatively
unspoiled frontier in south Florida, and perhaps the least altered
coastal county of the southwestern peninsula. Prior to the
completion of the Tamiami Trail, access was difficult and usually
occurred by boat. Because the lower east coast of Florida proved
both environmentally 2nd logistically more attractive, the explosive
growth and development that characterized "the Gold Coast" was late
in coming to southwestern Florida. The large amounts of water
present, the ravenous hordes of mosquitoes, the vast expanses of the
area without viable (or at least continuously passable) roa~ways,
plus the easier affluence obtainable in other parts of the state,
all worked to keep the Collier County region relatively pristine.
It is prophetic that an early map (Williams, 1837) of the State of
Florida hCid two wardE, "Fertile lands", written across what was to
become Collier County. A~riculture was the first major County
industry but soon gave way to other industries, including tourism
which began in earnest in the early part of the twentieth century.
With the slew but continual increcse in population, growth became
more rapid and much natural land gradually gave way to cultivation
or was otherwise developed. After the area was "discovered" in the
late 1920-1930's to be a prime fishing, hunting and recreational
region, growth became more rapid. By 1976 the county population was
nearly 63000 people. Population projections for the year 2000 range
from a low of 72000 (already unrealistic), to a high of 230000.
County zoning in 1972 could support a projected population of
600000. These figures refer only to the coastal zone, and not to
the relatively undeveloped arEas in the interior. Feiss ~ ~.
(1973) provide additional deuographic data.
Completion of SR 84 (Alligator Alley) opened up the middle interior
and coastal ares of the county to easy access from the Browaro-Palm
Beach county areas, thus adding to the population i~pacts associated
with rs 61 and access from the Dade-Monroe areas. With 1-75 now
completed, access not only from more northerly counties, but also,
frOD the eastern seaboard, and inland states is easier. The
Interstate system now makes it possible to arrive in Collier County
from almost any point east of the Mississippi in 2-3 days travel
time by automobile. Coupled with commercial forms of transportation
such as airlines, railway and bus lines, more and more people are
38
discovering the benefits 01 subtropical life. Better access and the
associated population growth in turn, produces increasing envi-
ronmental impact on an area that has not been managed for natural
resources in the past, and is still unready to accept such impact.
Most of the tourist traffic and reside~tial demand is directed
toward the coastal zone and its concomitant amenities. Settlement
rates have, historically, always been higher in this region than in
the interior.
The coastal zone of the county is presently the zone with highest
population, highest land values, and greatest development. (Table
1). Although the Golden Gate development area is of greater extent
(some 200 sq miles) the major portion of development has yet to
materialize. In regard to destruction of land area, and associated
adverse resource impact, the extensive canal system in Golden Gate
ranks equally with coastal alteration. To fully understand the
effects of development in the coastal area it is necessary to
consider two other major alterations caused by man: pesticide
pollution and dredge and fill operations.
C. Pesticides in the Environment
Of the salt marsh mosquito in Florida, ~illiams (1837) wrote:
"The whole territory affords no object so unpleasant to strangers,
as this little troublesome insect. [They] infest the low ~angrove
swamps on the southern end of the peninsula, and the low and wet
grounds, in every part of the Territory, are more or less infested by
them; and in some places the hammocks and pine woods swarm with
them."
Man's attempt to eradicate or reduce the population of several
genera and species of mosquitoes has been a long and costly battle.
At present, man seems to have won several rounds, but the war is by
no means over. Control today in Collier County is by larvacides and
adulticides, with the latter predominan~. Without going into detail
regarding the types and amounts of pesticides used or the recently
espoused alternative methods of control, suffice it to say that
periodically large amounts of organo-phosphate pesticides are
sprayed into the air and E,-entually wash or settle into the estuary.
The exact amounts entering the estuary are not known, but in any
case will vary depending on method of application, strength of the
mixture, carrying vehicle of the mixture, wind, humidity, sedi-
mentary and tidal factcrs, as well as the solubility and advection
potential for the pesticide in the water column.
Pesticides are harmful to the environment and its inhabitan~s in
several ways: First, the directly affected targeted organism
becomes a cumulative sink for small amounts that produce the
organism's death; Second, related and unrelated non-targeted
organisms are also killed or injured as a consequence of the
non-discriminctory effect or the pesticide in the environment;
Third, organisms which eat either the targeted or non-targeted
39
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organism Rre secondarily affected by ingesting small, but cumulativ~
amounts of pesticide each time a dead or injured organism is e~ten;
Fourth, by the phenomenor of biological magnification, pesticides
stored in body tissues of targeted, non-targeted, scavenging and
lower predatory organisms are multiplied progressively up throu~h
the food chain so that top orcer carnivores (e.g. snook, wadin~
birds) ingest several hundred times the amount needed to kill the
targeted organism; Fifth, by dissolution into the water column cr
advection onto sediment particles, pesticides are brought in contact
with all aquatic organisms, either affecting them directly or
indirectly, and with subsequent biological magnification also
possible; Sixth, deterioration of the pesticide into component parts
or new compounds may prove equally or more damaging to the env-
ironment than the original compound; Seventh, by slowly degrading
over long periods of time, and well after the date of original
application, pesticides become biological time bombs; Eighth,
pesticides may unite synergistically to magnify the effects of a
relatively less toxic co~pound into one more toxic; Ninth, by
affecting or destroying non-targeted organisms which are the food
supply for species higher in the trophic order, the ecology and
livelihood of such species is affected; Tenth; by exerting long-term
effects on physiological processes the organism may be made
evolutionarily less fit to survive and/or reproduce.
A good example of a pesticide's adverse impact would be the effects
of Baytex, a larvacide for mosquitoes, which enters the water column
and affects the ability of stone crab larvae to survive or molt into
juvenile stone crabs. Host insecticides are, in fact, arthropocides
and work by affecting physiological systems that are common to all
arthropods, be they insect, spider, crab or shrimp. Both adult and
larval stages can be so affected.
Few studies have been carried out on the types and amounts of
insecticide residues in the Collier County estuaries. Not only must
"mosquito spray" be investigated, but also the amounts of agri-
cultural pesticides and commercially applied products (e.g. golf
course sprays such as the lethally toxic compound MOPAC) that ~ay
infiltrate the estuarine water column. The recent alarm over EDB
(ethylene dibromide) is another case in point. One estimate is that
over half of the nearly 700 golf courses in the state have had EDB
applied. A major probleL of such studies is not the testing per se,
for many methods are a\'ailable, but rather the eytremely high cost
of the necessary testing equipment and laboratory services. In
addition, many testing methods require critical and complex handling
of water or organismic samples, so that trained technicians both in
the field and in the laboratory are required if the data are to be
valid. Another factor, heretofore receiving little attention, is
the test organism itself. So~e estuarine species may magnify,
others de-magnify, tot?l amounts to which they are exposed.
Readings made from oyster tissue, for example, may not reflect
abundances seen in fishes, because the nutritional modes employed by
each taxon differ, and because of the physiological ability to shed
ingested pesticides may vary from species to species. The problem
is clearly complex and no easy solutions can be offered.
41
D. prcdge and Fill Operations
Three types of dr~dfes are presently employed in bottorr-alterin~
operations: the hopper dredge, the side-cast dr"dge, and the
pipeline dredge. The first type stores the dredged spoil in a
hopper-type COITp2rt~ent in the hold of the ship and deposits the
spoil later in another area. The side-cast dredge is primarily used
in high e~ergy inlets where fast Ctlrrent systems are employed to
carry away the spoil which is cast off to the side of the dredging
vessel. Sediments ITust be clean enough and of sufficient size that
the currents will effectively disperse them. This type of operation
resembles 2 snow plow working on a windy day. The third operation
literally sucks up the bottom materia] and carries it via a pipeline
of variable length to the area where the spoil is to be deposited.
This type of dredging is the one usually employed in the cons-
truction of finger-canal end peninsulas by land development
companies, because it allows 2 relatively accurate placerrent of
sediments (Goldstein 1983).
The adverse effects of dredge and fill operations are legion, and
many are cumulatiVE or extremely long-lasting. The major effect is
that the benthic seciments dre disturbed and either recistributed or
forced up into the water column. The result is that co~rcunds
trapped on sediment particles are once again suspended or re-
dissolved, their stratification destroyed or inverted, or the
sediments themselves redistributed into areas where stratification
had either not yet occurred, or had long ago become stable. The
biological effects of dredge and fill operations include: 1) extreme
turbidity in the water column (resulting in loss of available light
to plants, decreases in pbytoplankton or zooplankton, and anaero-
biosis or chemical degradation of water quality); 2) high siltation
(producir.g covering effects or non-motile bottom florE and fauna,
habitat alteration or destruction, again often witr. resulting
anaerobiosis of the area); and ~) massive releases of advected or
dissolved substance into the water column or on the surrounding
sediments (producing eutrophication, degradation of water quality,
dissolution of heavy metal or other environmental toxins, and
potentially adverse physical and biological effects on the sur-
rounding biota).
Within the estuarine syste~ of Collier County large-scale,
destructive dredge and fill operations have been conducted in five
of the eight drain~ge districts (Coastal Zones I, II, Ill, V, VI).
This has occured primarily in the construction of finger canal-
peninsula land development the late 1940's through 1960's. These
operations have resulted in a nearly complete deterioration of
ambient water quality, and both acute and chronic biological
degradation of the flora and fauna associated with the intertidal
and subtidal portions of these estuarine systems. Uplan~ semi-
terrestrial and terrestrial effects also range from acute to
chronic, and in many cases are permanently destructive.
Studies conducted on the Kaples Bay system (Simpson 1979, and authors
therein) have shown that dredge and fill, and concrete bulkhead or
riprap seawall construction, have produced thermal and halinic
42
stratification in many of the finger canals; totally destroyed the
sedimentological stratigraphy of the bottom; altered the hydro-
dynamical flow characteristics of the Bay; increased the turbidity
within the water column; accelerated the growth of anerobic
bacteria; enhanced the resultant change to anaerobiosis in the
estuarine system; encouraged and supported the growth of human
pathogens; increased the eutrophication and stagnation within the
canals; and totally changed or destroyed the naturally occurring
flora and fauna within the Bay.
On the other hand, the (artificial) production of hard substrata in
the form of seawalls, groins, pilings and other marine-associated
structures has allowed extensive development of a depauperate,
primarily sessile, colonial, pollution-tolerant invertebrate fauna,
which in turn supports a depauperate fish fauna. Vegetative cover
has changed from a seagrass-based system to an algae-phytoplankton
based system now utilizing (and in many cases dependent on)
dissolved nutrient runoff from lawns, creek sources, and from
secondarily treated sewage. Biological magnification of
environmental toxins may be occurring with some regularity, although
no data are available on this aspect. Data are also not available
for more recently developed pollutants such as PCB, EDB, many of the
organophosphate pesticides, and heavy metal contaminants such as
chromium, lead, and other motor-vehicle-generated pollutants. All
of these can enter the finger canal system and be trapped there,
owing to poor tidal flushing and the previously mentioned halinic
and thermal stratification.
As with pesticide pollution, the question is not one of adequate
testing equipment, but rather adequate money to pay for such
testing, and the necessary technicians to conduct field sampling and
monitoring over long periods. The increasing chemical complexity
and sophistication of many compounds (all of which have been
literally created by man, never having existed on earth before) has
required a concomitant increase in testing sophistication.
Moreover, because the pathological effects of many of these
compounds are more virulent (many are carcinogenic), they exceed in
magnitude (over the long term) more acute, but perhaps ecologically
less damaging natural pathogens such as Vibrio, Salmonella,
Staphylococcus, ~treptococcus, and Escherichia. The latter
organisms, although dangerous or downright deadly, produce disease
which can be cured or controlled; where many of the carcinogenic
IT_aterials produce cancers which cannot. And whereas the effects
from naturally occurring pathogens are usually acute and noticeable
within a short time, the effects from carcinogens may accumulate
over long periods and not be manifested until years later, when cure
is impossible.
E. Other Effects on the Estuarine System
Much of the estuarine system as a whole is utilized by man for
recreation. This use produces a variety of short and long-term
effects, many of which are not serious (or at least repairable
either within the system or by man's intervention). In addition to
43
physical injury to I:,arine I:ciI~mals or doph:::ns, power buat usage cur:
result in prop-charrel destruction of seagrass beds which may
require some tirr~ to refill and revegetate. Exhaust pollutants from
marine engines, ~pillage ~;r.d 1-;i I ge-washings, point-source inj ec t ions
0: sewa?e fro~ marine vessels, and everyday litter and waste
cLsposal prc'c1\'Ce short-tenr., relc1tively lew grade, envin'omental or
aesthetic deterioration of estcarine waters.
Construction along estuarine shorelines can result in the alteration
or complete removal of associated mangrove or marsh grass ass-
emblages. Destabiliz2tion of the littoral-supralittoral zone is one
consequence, with subsequent erosion of the estuarine margin.
Marina and other dockage construction can also impede surface flows
and change circulation patterns.
Some of man's other ef~ects may be quite subtle. Fishing pressure,
both sport and co~mercial, may affect stocks of several important
finfistes and shellfishes. A m2~or part of the tourist industry
usin[ the estuary dL'pends or prc>motion of sufficient stocks of game
and sp0rt fishes (snook, seatrout, redfish) which spend the early
part or their juver~:e phases within the estuary. The cCD~ercial
invertebrate ~n~ustry presently revolves around pink shrimp and
stone crabs, both of ,,'hid, r;:ust enter the estuary in order to
complete their juvenile or adult life cycle. Habitat destruction or
degradation, coupled with ordinary fishing pressure, may impose
stress on these populations to the extent that catch per unit effort
shows 2 notable decline. Decre2sing stocks produce an economic
impact especially if the ~ernand for these stocks remains high.
An aesthetic effect ~hich is occurring with increasing abundance is
"vislCal pollution." Once pristine areas now support large amounts
or environwentally non-decomposable litter such as beer ard soft
drink cans, plastic eating and drinking utensils, cellopnane-type
wrapFers, rubber products, glass and plastic condiwent, cleaning
agent, or liquor tettles, anci other implements of modern living. In
addition, estuarine \'istas, once untrammeled are now enclosed by
high-rise condominiums arc hotels which provide a concrete and glass
backdrop to the natural vegetation. Coupled with this is "aural
pollution". The increased utilization of gasoline, diesel and jet
powered engines both on, around, or above the estuaries has made
much of the Collier County estuarine syster;: noise-polluted.
Sanctuaries froIT dutoffiobile, truck, powerboat or aircraft noise are
now available only in the most remote parts of the Ten Thousand
Islands, and ever here intermittent pollutions occurs.
All of these effects can alter wildlife abcndances either directly
(via food chain alteration), or indirectly (causing species to move
elsewhere). As the variuus biological elements within the system
readjust, the system as a ~hole is subtly shaken, but the resultant
changes are often unnoticeable. In Collier County man's impact on
some arecs of the estuary has been so great that it is too late to
expect any reverting to wrat was once there. In8tead, steps should
continue to be taken to preserve and conserve tnose portions which
have as yet received the least amount of disturbance.
44
SECTIO~ 7
ESTrARINE ECOLOCY
A. Background
Estuaries and their associated wetlands are recognized for their
biological and physiographical importance to coastal zones. This
has proved specially true in subtropical and tropical areas where
estuarine ecosystems form the major connecting link between the
relatively stenohaline biotopes of the marine environment and the
oligohaline or freshwater biotopes of the uplands. Within inter-
tidal and supratidal estuarine wetlands are found the maximum
incursional limits for both truly marine, and truly freshwater
flora and fauna, as well as a broad area of overlap in which a
mixohalinic or eurhyalinic biota can exist. The meeting and mixing
of marine and fresh waters produces a wide range of brackish water
conditions which, although stressful to many of the more osmotically
restricted plant and animal species, nevertheless allows a
flourishing biota to exist. The net productivities, bio~asses, and
standing crops found within a typical estuary often rival that
produced in the world's best managed agricultural systems.
As pointed out by Odum ~ ale (1974), estuaries are extremely
complex ecosystems, although sufficient similarities exist among
them to allow a provisional classification of the various types.
The factors of climate, geology, tidal influences, and history all
combine within any given estuarine ecosystem to provide a uniquely
characterized biotope for each area. This can be easily seen in the
recent summaries provided for Biscayne Bay, Charlotte Harbor, Tampa
Bay, and Appalachicola Bay by Roessler and Beardsley, Taylor, Simon,
and Livingston et al. (all 1974), respectively. To the above 4
factors (listedbyOdum ~~. 1974) may also be added a fifth, that
of upland hydrography. In the south Florida region, and the
southwestern Florida area in particular, the freshwater hydro-
graphical and hydrodynamic factors exert an influence at least as
important if not more so than the other prevailing factors.
In Collier County, the estuarine systems that presently exist, or
had existed in the past, have been greatly influenced by a com-
bination of environmental and populational changes. These changes
have exerted their effects because of the geology of the south-
western coastal plain, the geography of the coastal margin, and the
demography of the area. Intimately tied to these changes has been
the hydrographic conditions of the region; conditions which existed
long before man arrived and which have long affected man's attempts
to settle the area. A brief consideration of these factors will
provide a foundation for the summaries and synopses presented in
this report.
The two most important points to keep in mind throughout the
following discussion are: 1) The estuarine areas of Collier County
in their pristine state, are uninhabitable; and 2) Collier County
and surrounding environs are a water-based, water-supported and
water-delimited region. These two points have been both curse and
benison to the region taken as a whole.
45
R. Plant Communities 1~ The Coastal ZGne
It i~ pstimated that over 3500 species of vascular plants occur o~
the Florida peninsula ('v.'<~rc 1979). with over 850 species indigenous
to south Florida (Davis 19~3). This flora includes 90 species of
1:.Jicwcod trees, pu'babl'. :: freater Durr,ber than found any,,'here else
in the United States except the Greot Smokey Mountains where about
100 species occurs. Included also are 125 species of shrubs, 8
native palm species, 130 species of grasses, and 90 species of
sedges and rushes.
Over 400 Floridan species have been designated as rare, threatened
or endangered, and at least 274 of these are found in the lower Gulf
Coast counties from T2rrpa southward (~cCoy 1981). Acout 163 of
these occur in various tabitats of Collier County, and some 27
species were considerec 01 critical concern by the Florida
Comrrittee on Rare dnd Endargered Plants an Animals (hard 1979). In
Collier County there are at least 61 species of epiphytic and
terrestrial orchids (Lucr 1972, Gore, personal observation), and
approximately 10 species of epiphytic bromeliads, with several
species in either group or. the rare or endangered species list. Of
the species of special concern,92 are associated with coastal zone
habitats including mang~cve forest, marsh, coastal hardwood
hammocks, and coastal sand pine assemblages. Collier County ranks
highest of all the coastal counties in the abundance of plant
species of special concern (McCoy 1981).
Because of the rapid development that has occurred in the county, an
extremely large number of introduced landscaping species, plus an
unknown number of escapees or colonizing migrant forms are also
present. Many of these forms car effectively compete with native
species when they escape from cultivation, and several (e.g.
relaleuca, Schinus, Casuarina) have formed large, thick and often
irrpenetrable stands the area, to the detriment or total elimination
of native forrr:s. '....ith developmeEt and the continual introduction of
exotics by nurserymen it is safe tc say that there is no way to
effectively stop their cerr.petition. Atterr.pts to eliminate these
species by chemical or other means would be batt prohibitively
expensive and environmentally catastrophic. Large areas of the
ccunty still maintain nearly pure native strands and forests (e.g.
Rhizophora-Avicennia, Pinus-Serenoa, Spartina-Juncus). For this
reason seeding by exotico tends to be prevented, or if it occurs,
they are cut competed by native forms. Unfortunately, continued
rea~ estate development usually requires massive disturbance or
total elimination cf f'ative stands, thereby opening the way for
exotic incursions. The fragile ecology of native flora, tied 8S it
is to a soil-poor, water-rich substratum, allows little forgiveness
once disturbed, and the ecosystem generally deteriorates at a
varying pace depending on the severity of the original impact has
been.
46
Coupled with landE-caping efforts to produce an artificial "tropical"
look, and the large-scale development of seemingly endless numbers
of golf courses, is the detrimental consequences associated with
fertilizer and pesticide applications to these areas. On the one
hand, eutrophication of standing or slowly moving surface waters
result, whereas on the other the delicate balance between predaceous
and herbivorous insects is permanently altered. The results of this
alteration are felt all the way up the food chain. It is doubtful
that developed areas will ever return to a pristine equilibrium.
Continued development without an attempt to incorporate natural
assemblages will undoubtedly result in the loss of many native
non-landscape and landscape-oriented plants.
An important consideration, however, is the amount of land that is
not available for development (See Table 1). Within the coastal
zone as delineated earlier approximately 90% of the mangrove system,
and 80-85% of the associated fresh and saltwater marshes are in the
Conserved category (McCoy 1981). Indeed, some 56% of the total
available area of Collier County is under some type of Conservation,
Preservation or Special Treatment designation. However, both the
mangrove and marsh ecosystems are, to some extent, a monoculture
system supporting large numbers of individuals of just a few plant
species, with no more than 5 or so being both numerically and
specifically dominant. It is the upland assemblages (cypress
strands, hardwood hydric swamps, and hardwood hammocks) that exhibit
the greatest species richness and diversity. These areas are
coupled directly to the coastal region by virtue of water flow and
nutrient release. Any activity that affects the upland regions
will eventually exert so~e effect within the estuary.
C. Wetland Types And Definitions
In order to properly consider the Collier County estuarine system
and its related upland areas, it is necessary to define several
terms. These definitions are deliberately stated in broad terms
because it was felt that limiting them to standard ecological
terminology would be too restrictive. This should not be mis-
construed as a departure from ecological concepts. Indeed, without
considering the ecology of the estuary in its entirety no meaningful
picture of what has transgressed can be obtained. This report,
however, is intended to be an overview and not a finely-tuned study
of the ecology or community structure and relationships of any
plant or animal assemblage in a given area. There are sufficient
detailed data in numerous published reports that are available to
the interested reader. These are listed in the Bibliography.
A wetland is an area transitional between terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems in which the water table is usually at or near the
surface, where hydrophytes are the predominant vegetation, and the
substratum is predominantly undrained hydric soils, or is composed
of non-soil substrata either saturated with water or covered by
47
water at lc?st som~ period of time Gliring the growing sed~cn of each
year (nodified from Cowc:rdin et a1., 1979). The q:land limits of
wetlanc5 ere those [wur,daries where hydrorhytic cover gives way to
rr: e 50- 0 r x e r 0 p Ii y tic a s ~ c r~ b 1 age s; w her e h y d r i c so i 1 s c h a n get c
non-hydric soils; and where the li~lits of periodic or per~2nent
standing or tidally-inf}llenced waters are reached.
hetlands caT' be classified into s(;veral categories using cl'nm:orlv
2C(eptE~ no~enclature, the usage and applicntjcn (f which have
cecoGe est~blished by tradition.
A) Ma rshes, S"'T~.YJ?..s_ and bogs arc areas having hydrophyte cover
(i. e. water bcrre, "Tater-associated or water-requiring plants)
and hydric soils.
B) !lat~ have rycric seils but are unvegetatec or only s~3rir:t:ly
so, owing to drastic fluctuation in water level prCGLC(C c:
tides, Wii.C or ....c t(r ;-lction, turtiei L~., (, ri?h s;-l ~ con-
centrations.
C)
Strand margir:5 support hydrophytic communities on a
that is not hydric, or i~ only slowly becoming so.
occur on the edges of i~roundments, wnshover fans,
excavations, etc.
s~,cstratum
These areas
dredged
D) Rockv shores are areas that support some type of hydrophyte,
but lack hydric soils. This definition is broadened from that
in Cowardir et_ .91... (1979) by including nor.-vegetated c:reas
without hydric soils. Examples in the Collier County estcErine
system wou]~ be articial tard substrata such as rip rap,
groir.s, concrete rclkhead systems and the like. TheSE sub-
strata typically support recuced vegetation in the form of
cl}gae (i.e. "sea,,'eeds").
It should be neted here that there are probably 2S many difterer:t
classifications of wetlands as there are authorities in the field.
Some of these overlap while others are in disagreement. The
c12ssificatic,n used by Odum ~ 21. (1974) differs from that proposed.
by r.s. ?rrr.y Corps of Engineers. Th,- =()JT'E'1 is tc:sed more on
energy-flow considerations, the latter on physiographic features.
The system employed by Ccwardin ~ ~ (1979) is too complex for
everyday use.
Under this general classification are several sut-categories of
wetlands. Each is distinguished from the others by a combination of
biological, sedimentological, hydrological and phvsiographical
attributes. A list of wetland types in Collier County is given in
Table 2. This report is primarily concerned with seagrass beds,
salt,,'ater mud flats, marsh ar:d prairieland, salt _and brackish wEter
forests and exotic assemblages. however, some reference to upland
types is both necessary and unavoidable. The primary vegetation
indictors in Table 2 are these species which were selected froc the
48
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49
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50
numerous species that occur in each of the wetland types, and judged
to be most characteristic of each type. Because each wetland is a
functioning biotope and several may be considered ecosystems,
numerous other species occur and interact. Animal species could
just as easily have been used for indicators, but because of their
mobility (and often the unfamiliarity of non-specialists with the
various species) the relatively permanent plant species were
selected.
Table 3 lists the major wetland types in each of the eight major
drainage districts. Every drainage district contains estuary-
related wetland types. This points again to the importance of
the coastal zone in the overall ecology of the county. Table 4
(based on concepts provided by Odum ~. ~. 1974) lists the major
hydrographic regions and the important biotopes found therein. In
addition, the major stresses that each drainage area has undergone,
or is likely to sustain, are also listed. The latter data must be
used with some caution for two reasons. First, they are based on
older studies (e.g. Simpson 1974) and thus may not reflect current
conditions which may be better or worse. Second, large areas of the
estuarine system have received only minimal or no investigation, so
that extrapolation from adjacent subsystems provides the only
comparative data. Of greater importance is that no continuing
long-term monitoring of any major part of the estuarine systems
(with the exception of Rookery Bay and parts of the Marco Island
area) has been initiated. In order to have meaningful baseline data
such monitoring ideally should have begun at least 20 years ago.
Unfortunately, at that time ecological concerns were not paramount
in either the public's eye, the governmental bodies, and least of
all the land developer.
D. Coastal Zone Ecosystems
A five month survey of the Collier County coastal zone area was
conducted from September 1983 through January 1984. Major biotopes
and contained habitats representative of the coastal zone were
examined for plant associations, general vegetational distribution
within a given habitat, and overall vegetational characterization
within each drainage area (See Table 5). These data were obtained
through aerial overflight, by comparison of previously made black
and white aerial photographs, and by ground survey using land
vehicles and boats. A summary of vegetational factors is provided
under each Drainage District's general synopsis, and is provided in
Table 6.
Because almost
it was decided
r.omenclators.
2 so that the
ecosystem and
Drainage Area
survey in the
Reports 84-4,
every area surveyed contained numerous plant species
to characterize each zone by generally familiar
These no~enclators are the same as appearing in Table
reader can gain a quick characterization of each
its contained wetland types within a particular
from Table 2 or 5. The results of the Site-specific
County's estuarine areas are found in Technical
and 84-5.
51
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Table 5. Examples of wetland systems, subsystems and classess in coastal
Collier County (based on Cllwardin et al. 1979).
System
Subsystem
Class
Example
PALUSTRINE
LACUSTRINE
RIVERINE Intermittent
l.'pper Perennial*
Lower Perennial
Tidal
Rock Bottom
Unconsolidated Bottom
Aquatic Bed
Unconsolidated Shore
Emergent Wetland
Scrub-shrub Wetland
Forested Wetland
Rock Bottom
Unconsolidated Bottom
Aquatic Bed
Rocky Shore
Unccnsolidated Shore
Emergent Wetland
Streambed
Rock Bottom
Unconsolidated Bottom
Aquatic Bed
Rocky Shore
Unconsolidated Shore
Copeland sawgrass prlalrie
Fakahatchee Strand (ir
part)
Barbell Lake (Faka-
hatchee)
Ephemeral sawgrass prairie
ponds
Cattail marsh, sawgrass
prairies (Fakahatchee)
Dwarf cypress heads, Big
Cypress Swamp
Fakahatchee pond apple
forest (Big Cypress Bend)
Deep Lake
Typical dredged quarries
Deep Lake
Sunniland Quarry
Marco Landfill spoil area
Deep Lake s~wgrass prairie
Upper Haldeman Creek
Haldeman Creek, US 41
culvert
Rock Creek
Hydrilla mats, upper
Henderson Creek
Turner River Canal
Haldeman Creek channel,
1-75 area
Duplicates all examples given immediately above
Emergent \';etland**
Rock Bottom
Unconsolidated Bottom
Aquatic Bed
Rocky Shore
Unconsolidated Shore
55
Cattail marshes, Turner
River area
Dredged bedrock channels,
Intracoastal Waterway
Horr's Island mangrove
fringe
Water hyacinth, Cocohat-
chee River
Bulkheads and riprap
areas, Gordon River
Gordon River, north fork
embayments (in part)
Table h (Continued). b:3mplc~ c1 wetland ~: crems, sut-syst('ni~ an] classes ,-
coastal Collier County (based on Cowardin ot al. 197~).
FXdmple
System
Subsystem
Class
Emergent Wetle-nd
ESTUARINE
Intertidal
Aquatic Bed
Streambeds
rnconsolidated Shore
Emergent \,'et J and
Scrub-Shrub Wetland
Forested Wetland
Rocky Shere
Subtidal
GnconsoJidated Bottorr
Aquatic Bed
MARINE
Intertidal
Aquatic Bed
UnconsolidatEd Shore
Subt idal
Cnconsolidated Bottom
Aquatic feds
Reef
lower Henderson CreE~
cordgrass and rush
marshes
Outer Clam Bay shoal
grass beds
Mangrove forest tida:
channels, Outer C12= =av
Rookery Bay
Dollar and Rookery E~-
cordgrass marshes
Goodland area, mangr:_
scrub island transi:~:~-
als
Little Hickory Bay
lagoonal margin for~~:
Gullivan Bay, vermet~:
molluscan reefs
Clam Pass
Rookery Bay shoal gr~~3
beds
Gordon Pass seagrass ~2d3
Naples Beach area
Keewaydin Island off-
shore area
Offshore algal mats,
Gulf of Mexico
Artificial reefs, at:
I\aples Beach
* All upper perrennial classifications, by definition, require t~~~
gradient and \vater velocities. It is 2 subjective opinion as tc "'-~:
constitutes "fast" waters. Collier county creeks are not fast in :-c
sense of Rocky Mountain freshw2ter streams, for most of the year c_:,
during heavy rainfall anc fleod conditions they raintain a reclt-i':<..
high water velocity cOlT-pared to their "normal" conditions.
** This is a cor,fused category insofar as Co llier County wetlands ",:ca
concernd.
56
Table 6. Vegetative ecosystems in the Collier County zone (see text).
T. COASTAL ZONE
A. Estuarine Ecosystem
.
1. Mainland
a) Marsh
b) Mangrove forest
c) Seagrass beds
i) Naturally bare
ii) Unnaturally vegetated by exotics
2. Barrier Island
a) Marsh
b) Mangrove forest
c) Seagrass beds
d) ~on-vegetated by native plants
i) ~aturally bare
ii) Unnaturally vegetated by exotics
B. ~aritime Ecosystem
1. Mainland
a) Forests
i) Coastal hbrdwood ha~~ock
ii) Coastal Pine barrens
b) Shrubs thickets
c) Hydric communities
d) Non-vegetated by native plants
i) Naturally bare
ii) Unnaturally vegetated by exotics
2. Barrier Island
a) Forests
i) Coastal hardwood harr~ock
ii) Coastal Pine barrens
b) Dune shrub thickets
c) Hydric communities
d) Non-vegetated by Dative plants
i) Naturally bare
ii) Unnaturally vegetated by exotics
Est. Res. Report
57
SECTION 8
CONCLUSION
It must be realized that this report can only provide a first
approximation of the ecological parameters operating in the
estuaries of the Collier County coastal zone. The areas of concern
are almost daily undergoing some type of change, both natural and
man-made, whether it be through current or tidal scouring of banks,
or collapse of marginal shorelines by outboard motorboat wakes.
Natural catastrophes produced by sudden cold snaps, oxygen
inversions in the water column, red tide organisms, or drastic
changes in salinities intiated by heavy rainfalls, overland
sheetflow runoff, or hurricanes are no less serious to the general
well-being of the estuarine flora and fauna than are man-induced
pollutants such as sewerage, pesticides, and nutrient overen-
richment. Topographical changes produced by siltation and sediment
entrapment can be as detrimental as any man-made dredge and fill
proj ect.
The critical point is that a flourishing, healthy estuary can be
more forgiving of environmental insults than one that is in a state
of decline. Because man is in the area to stay, and because the
environmental health of the estuarine wetlands system in southwest
Florida (of which the estuaries are only the margin) is now in his
hands it is imperative to review the entire coastal wetland system,
in order to ensure the future health and productivity of the system
as a whole. Man's impact need not be all bad. In some cases his
impact has been fatal to the environment, in other cases he has made
retribution by saving parts of the environment, even if it meant the
expenditure of dollars that some think are better spent elsewhere.
Because in Collier County man not only lives within, but is an
integral part of the coastal system, it behooves him to live
carefully within that system. Man, like other organisms, will have
an impact, but this impact can be minimized through careful
management. Education can bring enlightenment in this regard, and
this report and others in the series, is a step in that direction.
58
SECTlOr\ 9
RECOMMENDAT10NS
1 . The Environmental Section should be maintained in a Department
Status. The permanent staff should be expanded to include both field
and administrative positions. This expansion would allow a more
efficient attainment of the goals and responsibilities of the
Environmental office.
2. A permanent long-term monitoring program should be initiated for
monitoring biological and chemical parameters within the county
area. This should include terrestrial, fresh and estuarine-marine
water systems, and could be implemented using presently available
scientific equipment checked and serviced on a weekly basis by
Department personnel. The data base so obtained would provide &
continuing picture of general environmental conditions, as well as
allow documented input into decision-making by outside agencies and
personnel in regard to proposed or requested environmental
perturbations.
3. Environmental data collected by the Department should be correlated
with those obtained by the Collier County Health Department. A data
base program should be established on the government computer system
for access by either department, and to other agencies or personnel
within and outside the county government.
4. A data base exchange program should be initiated with Lee and H€~dry
County governments, and with Everglades Kational Park to ensure
rapid and t~mely communications and awareness of perturbations both
natural and man-made within the southwestern Florida ecosystem.
5. The Environmental Department should be given power of ordinance
enforcement either directly (by issuance of cease and desist
warrants) or indirectly (by final authority review) for any proposed
or continuing environmentally-related proposals within the county.
This should include authority to deny, or require mitigation for any
proposed project.
6. An Environmental Awareness Program should be initiated to educate
the general population of Collier County to important environmental
concerns, as well as to why and how environmentally-related
permitting activities are conducted.
59
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pp. 671- 72.
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Coop.
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60
IJEII0GRAPHY lcontinued)
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61
BIBLIOGRAPHY (continued)
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Gee & Jenson, Inc. 1978. Hydrographic study Clam Bay system Collier
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Gee & Jenson, Inc. 1980. Regional Water Resources Study, Big Cypress
Basin Program No. 2201. III pp plus unnumbered appendices.
Gleason, P.J. (ed.). 1974. Environl1'ents of South Florida: Present and
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Gosselink, J. 1980. Tidal marshes - the boundary between land and
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D.H. Durrance and J.S. Yeend. 1978. Carbon flows in portions of
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62
_....IIIII......~_.,'lIf.._1lI
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63
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65
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66